Luxor

Luxor is a temple located in Egypt. It has a north-south axis, whereas most Egyptian temples have an east-west axis reflecting the rising and setting of the sun. There are many different entrances and statues all around the temple. Most of Luxor was built by the pharaoh Amenhotep III who reigned from 1391 - 1353 B.C. Others, such as Ramses II, Alexander the Great, and even some Romans, added to the original until it became what we see today. Somewhat surprisingly, every ruler who added to the temple aligned In 1937, a man named R.A. Schwaller de Lubicz began a fifteen year study on Luxor. He was a mathematician, philosopher, and egyptologist. He took a trained team of surveyors and draftsmen and they measured, analyzed and recorded everything about the Temple, all of the stones, passage ways, columns, and statues. He then wrote a book called Temple of Man. While he was studying the temple, he found a record of Egyptian's understanding of the laws of creation.

John Anthony West once said "Because there is nothing in our society that remotely corresponds to a Temple of Luxor, it is difficult to understand why Egypt should have exercised such infinite pains and genius on what is ultimately a symbolic gesture. It is even more difficult for us to understand the uses to which it was put and the effect it must have had on those exposed to it." Another statement that he made was "the Temple is in the nature of a magic rite, extending over two millenia, designed to evoke in the It is clear that the temple of Luxor has caught more than a few imaginations. In Las Vegas, Nevada there is a hotel replica of Luxor. It is a 30-story Pyramid shaped hotel with reproductions of artifacts from the Luxor and Karnak Temples. There are painted hieroglyphics, the Nile River, and a full size replica of King Tut's tomb within the hotel. It is a fascinating and entertaining hotel. A person can even learn facts about Luxor just by visiting

KV 22: Tomb of Amenhotep III

Located in the West Valley of the Kings, KV 22 was first discovered by Europeans in 1799 when French engineers Jollis and Devilliers explored the tomb. They found that it had already been looted by grave robbers and only a few figurines were left in the tomb. From 1905 to 1914, Theodore Davis excavated the tomb but details of his work have been lost. In 1915, Howard Carter worked in the tomb and in 1989 Waseda University began to clear the tomb again. The tomb itself is laid out very much like the tombs of Amenophis II (KV 35) and Tuthmosis IV (KV 43). From the entrance of the tomb to the back wall is approximately 85 meters. This is a large tomb, as a comparison with Tutankhamun’s tomb shows.

The interior of the tomb was originally covered by paintings. Salt leeching through the walls of the tomb resulted in the paintings crumbling away from the walls. The columns inside the tomb have also started to show evidence of salt damage. In 1990, restoration efforts began in an attempt to salvage the paintings.

Kom Ombo

Kom Ombo is home to an unusual double temple built during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods (300-80 B.C.) ending with Cleopatra, who is mentioned in some of the hieroglyphics. The temple is dedicated to the crocodile-headed god Sobek, god of fertility and creator of the world, and the falcon-headed Haroeris (Horus the Elder), the solar war god. The temple is located on a bend in the east bank of the Nile and about 20 miles north of Aswan. This area was once a home to a large number of crocodiles, which were held to be sacred. The only crocodiles in-sight, now, are mummified and located in the chapel of Hathor within the temple.

The temple was excavated last century with parts lost into the Nile and to an earthquake in 1992. The temple has two of everything, to accommodate the two gods, and among the projections on the walls, in detail, are sets of medical instruments carved into the stone. The crocodile-headed god Sobek wears a crown of double plumes which are located on top of horizontal ram’s horns. A sun disk sits at the center base of the plumes, and uraei (rearing cobras) rest on each side. Also visible in the temple are well-preserved bases of walls that allow you to see how the Egyptians got the stone blocks so close to one another by using water and wooden inserts.

Karnak

Karnak, a village in Upper Egypt, was built in honor of Amon. Recent excavations have pushed back the site date to around 3200 B.C. The ruins of Karnak cover a considerable area, though nothing remains of the houses, palaces or gardens that must have surrounded the temple in ancient times. The most northerly temple is the Temple of Mont, the god of war. Little remains of this temple but its foundation. The southern temple, which has a horseshoe-shaped lake, was devoted to the goddess Mut, wife of Amon. Between these two temples lay the largest of all Egyptian temples, and one of the largest in the world, the great metropolitan temple of Amon. It is not one complete temple, but rather was built by many different pharaohs, over a great amount of time, making the site a record of Egyptian history.

Many of the main roads which lead to the temples of Karnak used to be lined with sphinxes. The sphinxes which line the entrance to the First Pylon of Karnak combine the body of a lion with the head of a ram. The ram was a symbol of the god Amon for whom the temple was built. Each sphinx protects, between its forelegs, a standing statue of the king-- Ramesses II Standing in the shadow of the First Pylon of the Temple of Amon at Karnak (in Luxor, Egypt), one is struck by the length of its east-west axis and the colossal size of its columns. There are no fewer than 10 pylons, separated by courts and halls. And, like all other temples in Egypt, this one symbolizes the mound of the original creation. The ground rises ever so gradually from the entrance toward the sanctuary. The columns are stone replicas of the vegetation which was growing in the the marshy land around the mound of creation.

In the center of this first court are the ruins of the kiosk of Taharqa (690-664 B.C.) Beyond the kiosk before the Second Pylon are two standing statues of Ramesses II (c.1279-1213 B.C.) After the Second Pylon, the The Great Hypostyle Hall of the Karnak Temple was built by Ramses I, but much of it was decorated by Seti I and Ramses II, both of whom are credited with building it although the actual project began earlier. The north-south axis of the hall provides views which reveal not only the immensity but also the practicality of the architecture. The central row of 12 columns on the east-west axis are 69 feet (21meters) in height, about 33 feet (10 meters) in circumference, and have open papyrus capitals. The 122 columns in the side aisles are 43 feet (13 meters) in height, 27.5 feet (8.4 meters) in circumference, and have closed papyrus-bud capitals. The area of the vast hall is 5,800 yards.

The whole of this hall was roofed with stone slabs, and the interior was quite dark. The difference in height between the central and the side aisle columns was used to provide natural light through clerestory windows which have vertical stone slats. Historical reliefs on the outer walls show the victories of Seti I in Palestine and Ramses defeating the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh.

Within the Great Temple of Amon are included a number of other notable small shrines and temples. A temple to Ptah, on the north side of the site, was built by Hatshetsut and Tutmose III. Ramesses dedicated a temple in the south to Khons, the moon god, and a temple to Opet.

Karnak

Karnak, a village in Upper Egypt, was built in honor of Amon. Recent excavations have pushed back the site date to around 3200 B.C. The ruins of Karnak cover a considerable area, though nothing remains of the houses, palaces or gardens that must have surrounded the temple in ancient times. The most northerly temple is the Temple of Mont, the god of war. Little remains of this temple but its foundation. The southern temple, which has a horseshoe-shaped lake, was devoted to the goddess Mut, wife of Amon. Between these two temples lay the largest of all Egyptian temples, and one of the largest in the world, the great metropolitan temple of Amon. It is not one complete temple, but rather was built by many different pharaohs, over a great amount of time, making the site a record of Egyptian history.

Many of the main roads which lead to the temples of Karnak used to be lined with sphinxes. The sphinxes which line the entrance to the First Pylon of Karnak combine the body of a lion with the head of a ram. The ram was a symbol of the god Amon for whom the temple was built. Each sphinx protects, between its forelegs, a standing statue of the king-- Ramesses II Standing in the shadow of the First Pylon of the Temple of Amon at Karnak (in Luxor, Egypt), one is struck by the length of its east-west axis and the colossal size of its columns. There are no fewer than 10 pylons, separated by courts and halls. And, like all other temples in Egypt, this one symbolizes the mound of the original creation. The ground rises ever so gradually from the entrance toward the sanctuary. The columns are stone replicas of the vegetation which was growing in the the marshy land around the mound of creation.

In the center of this first court are the ruins of the kiosk of Taharqa (690-664 B.C.) Beyond the kiosk before the Second Pylon are two standing statues of Ramesses II (c.1279-1213 B.C.) After the Second Pylon, the The Great Hypostyle Hall of the Karnak Temple was built by Ramses I, but much of it was decorated by Seti I and Ramses II, both of whom are credited with building it although the actual project began earlier. The north-south axis of the hall provides views which reveal not only the immensity but also the practicality of the architecture. The central row of 12 columns on the east-west axis are 69 feet (21meters) in height, about 33 feet (10 meters) in circumference, and have open papyrus capitals. The 122 columns in the side aisles are 43 feet (13 meters) in height, 27.5 feet (8.4 meters) in circumference, and have closed papyrus-bud capitals. The area of the vast hall is 5,800 yards.

The whole of this hall was roofed with stone slabs, and the interior was quite dark. The difference in height between the central and the side aisle columns was used to provide natural light through clerestory windows which have vertical stone slats. Historical reliefs on the outer walls show the victories of Seti I in Palestine and Ramses defeating the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh.

Within the Great Temple of Amon are included a number of other notable small shrines and temples. A temple to Ptah, on the north side of the site, was built by Hatshetsut and Tutmose III. Ramesses dedicated a temple in the south to Khons, the moon god, and a temple to Opet.

Hierakonpolis

Approximately 3,500 years ago, the Egyptian city of Hierakonpolis flourished between the present cities of Cairo and Aswan. Hierakonpolis, Greek for City of the Hawk, is an archaeological discovery covering over 144 square miles of rich archaeological sites making it a very valuable find.

During Napoleon's expedition to Egypt in 1798, his scholarly associate, Vivant Denon, discovered the edge of an ancient temple. Throughout the next one hundred years, various visitors described other monuments in the area, though little extensive research was completed. It wasn't until the arrival of Quibell and Green in 1897 that proper research would be done on the area. Through their exploration, they discovered a very domesticated Predynastic site. They were not excited about their dull finds however, and nicknamed the area a "Predynastic Cemetery". While researching an area that a temple had been removed from, the two men joyously discovered the earliest large-scale metal statues from antiquity. A large gold and copper statue of the Hawk god, Horus, was found, as well as a life-size statue of King Pepi I, which was opened to unveil a statue of his son encased within. During their further exploration of this town mound, they found heaps of other artifacts such as pottery, figurines, weapons and statues. These finds confirmed the ancient traditions of the ancient site which may have been associated with being a very early unified state.

Along with the City of the Hawk, Green also discovered numerous temples at the southern end of the desert's rich site. After Green left Hierakonpolis, few people bothered with excavating the site which remained intact and untouched under a fog of disregard until 1967. From here, several archaeologists worked on the various sites, uncovering more pottery, figurines and architecture that would help us visualize the past life of the ancient Egyptians.

Another major discovery at Hierakonpolis was the predynastic burial sites. The subjects of the burial sites resembled a form of the beginnings of mummification. Renee Friedman and her team have found bodies whose hands and heads were wrapped with pads and strips of linen. This is significant as it predates the earliest evidence of mummification by over 500 years. However, this early form of mummification seemed restricted on the female members of the society. The specific use of padding and binding did not seem to serve to preserve the remains as later mummies would, but rather to preserve the subject's articulation.

The spoils of Hierakonpolis are vast. The burial mounds, pottery, elaborate masks and other art work, massive gold and bronze statues, weapons, animal remains and architecture have allowed archaeologists to see further into the Egypt's past and to hypothesize the great advances made up until the infamous time of the Pharaoh's. This serves to give us a clue to the evolution of ancient civilization as seen in ancient Egypt.

Helwan

The excavation of the site of Helwan is located southwest of Maasara and north of Ezbit-el-Walda. It is fifteen miles south of Cairo and two miles west of the Nile River. The excavation area lies just outside the Eastern Desert and close to the present town of Al Fayyum. The site dates back to the first and second dynasties. Thus, the site is approximately five thousand years old. The director of these excavations was Zaki Y. Saad. He worked in connection with the Department of Antiquities of the Egyptian government.

The first season of excavations began July 8,1942 and lasted until May 27, 1954. By the end of the last season, a total of 10,258 tombs were excavated. The tombs varied in size and composition. According to Saad, wealthy and revered men had large tombs with numerous chambers and sometimes staircases. Poor men were more often buried in simple graves, but still were accompanied by a variety of objects that would be needed in the afterlife. Many of the tombs for the wealthy were built using mud bricks and/or limestone.

The artifacts found in the tombs were indicative of the industry and technology of the First and Second Dynasty. Flint, one of the most difficult materials to modify, is utilized in several ways ranging from armbands to long knives. Some of these flint knives were up to 50 centimeters in length, an accomplishment of the craftsman from that time period. Ivory was also found in the tombs. It was used for vases, statuettes, utensils and decorative ornaments and jewelry boxes. Another material found was copper, from which they made mirrors, needles, saws, knives and other household objects.

The excavations at Helwan shed light on the lifestyles of ancient Egyptians during the First and Second Dynasties. It showed that the ancient Egyptians had the expertise of constructing tombs of stone before the building of the pyramids. It also showed that they were expert craftsmen of copper, flint, ivory, and several other materials. The excavations at Helwan also improved Egyptologists' understanding of ancient Egyptian technology, dress, customs, religious beliefs, and written tradition.

Giza

LAYMAN AND THE QUEEN OF SABA COMPANIONS OF THE CAVE CONCLUSION

Egypt is known for its fascinating history. Everyone is probably familiar with the great pyramids. After all, they are the only "Wonder of the World" that is reasonably intact today. These monumental pyramids exist in a place known as Giza. Giza is located in Lower Egypt (which is actually northern Egypt) near the Nile River. It is next to the present-day capital city of Cairo.

The history of Giza goes back to over 5,000 years ago. During the time in which the pharaohs lived, they built a fascinating funerary="0" included various temples and the three great pyramids. For many centuries, it was not known that the pyramids were the tombs of early Egyptian pharaohs. An example of one of the many theories were that the pyramids were storage places for grain during droughts and famine! Little did they know that these great pyramids were tombs built for three rulers: Menkaure, Khafre, and Khufu. These three rulers were of the 4th dynasty, (approximately 2601-2515 BCE.)

The Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and largest pyramid at the site. This pyramid was probably built by the cousin of Khufu, named Hemiunu. The Great Pyramid of Khufu covers 13 acres at its base and is approximately 137 meters (450 feet) in height. It was originally cased with polished limestone, creating a smooth exterior. Over the years, the smooth limestone was looted and used in other parts of the world. The pyramid of Khafre is slightly smaller than Khufu. Some of the original limestone casing is still visible at the top of this pyramid. Menkaure�s pyramid is smaller than the other two. The pyramids were built with huge red granite blocks that weighed about 2 � tons. The workers probably transported these blocks with small logs as rollers or by pouring water on the sand to create a slippery surface over which they could drag the blocks on sled-like structures. How they were raised is still a mystery. It involved mathematical calculations that we still cannot figure out! The entire funerary complex also has symbolic astronomical calculations in how the pyramids are oriented. This reflects the importance for the Ancient Egyptians to keep these three kings "immortal." (Click here for Kufu's funerary boat).

The designers of the pyramids tried to make sure that the king and the tomb "home" were never disturbed. During this time, it was believed the soul of the deceased always lingered. For example, offerings of food and beverage by family members were brought to the deceased. In the Great Pyramid of Khufu, the builders (who were slaves) placed his tomb chamber in the heart of the pyramid. A long, narrow, steeply rising passageway led to this tomb chamber. There were three false passageways, which were probably meant to fool looters or any unwelcome visitors. Unfortunately, despite the builders� precautions, looters had managed to break in to the tomb chamber. In it were extravagant funeral treasures, including works in gold, gems, and stone.

The Giza plateau also includes the Great Sphinx. To the Ancient Egyptians, the sphinx was a lion, which was a guardian to the sacred monuments. The lion had the head of a pharaoh who wore the royal headdress. Today his nose is missing.

All the pyramids can be seen from thirty miles from Giza itself. The site is truly spectacular. The walls are covered in fabulously incised hieroglyphics. From the outside, if you are standing right next to the pyramid, you will not be able to see the top. It is a pity to see that the Great Pyramids are in danger because of its neighbor, the ever-growing metropolitan city of Cairo. The pollution is causing the pyramids and the Great Sphinx to slowly deteriorate.

Today, if you visit Giza, you will find tons of other tourists in the area. You can even take a ride on a horse or camel around the Giza desert. The site of Sakkara is right next to Giza. Sometimes the tour guide will show you both sites. Giza today is known for its infamous "Sound and Light Show", which uses narration, and different colored lights similar to a play. The show depicts the history of the characters.

El-Omari

El-Omari was located in Lower Egypt, and is now currently located in the southern suburbs of Cairo (1). Through the search for the three villages of El-Omari many great outcomes were expected. Unfortunately, El-Omari has not been extensively excavated and only limited site reports have appeared (2). Two Frenchmen by the name of Bovier-Lapierre and Fernand Debano uncovered the evidence of the three villages of El-Omari in the 1920's and 40's. The recent Carbon 14 dating has established that the sites were occupied from 4000 BC and continued to be inhabited until the Archaic Period, Omari C being the later of the three (1). All of these sites where nearby and also in the mouth of the Wadi Hof. Their way of living was quite similar to that of the Merimde. Such as, Omari A covered a large area and yielded remains of over 100 circular and oval huts with sunken floors (1). Again like Merimde, Omari's houses were all well preserved with reed fences. This type of housing reflected the Omari living in smaller nuclear family units, which may have been self-contained.

The Omari had a way of farming similar to that of the Old Kingdom as well. The crops were harvested by threshing and the pure crop was later stored in muddy bins until consumption. The El-Omari also had a mortuary culture that was also similar to that of the Merimde in that the residents buried the dead within the village (1). This was done by placing the dead in round pits, before then they were placed in mats, animal skins, and different kinds of fabric. The way that the El-Omari lay their dead was very diverse from everyone else. The dead were laid out in a contracted position on their left sides with the head to the south and facing west, which was of course toward the traditional Dynastic "Realm of the Dead." (1) Many of the dead were buried with a very simple ornament. This was done to show some sort of authority; for example, one was buried with a clay box and another with a staff in his hand. More research and excavating needs to be done on the villages of El-Omari, so we can get a better understanding of the Old Kingdom in Lower Egypt.

El-Omari

El-Omari was located in Lower Egypt, and is now currently located in the southern suburbs of Cairo (1). Through the search for the three villages of El-Omari many great outcomes were expected. Unfortunately, El-Omari has not been extensively excavated and only limited site reports have appeared (2). Two Frenchmen by the name of Bovier-Lapierre and Fernand Debano uncovered the evidence of the three villages of El-Omari in the 1920's and 40's. The recent Carbon 14 dating has established that the sites were occupied from 4000 BC and continued to be inhabited until the Archaic Period, Omari C being the later of the three (1). All of these sites where nearby and also in the mouth of the Wadi Hof. Their way of living was quite similar to that of the Merimde. Such as, Omari A covered a large area and yielded remains of over 100 circular and oval huts with sunken floors (1). Again like Merimde, Omari's houses were all well preserved with reed fences. This type of housing reflected the Omari living in smaller nuclear family units, which may have been self-contained.

The Omari had a way of farming similar to that of the Old Kingdom as well. The crops were harvested by threshing and the pure crop was later stored in muddy bins until consumption. The El-Omari also had a mortuary culture that was also similar to that of the Merimde in that the residents buried the dead within the village (1). This was done by placing the dead in round pits, before then they were placed in mats, animal skins, and different kinds of fabric. The way that the El-Omari lay their dead was very diverse from everyone else. The dead were laid out in a contracted position on their left sides with the head to the south and facing west, which was of course toward the traditional Dynastic "Realm of the Dead." (1) Many of the dead were buried with a very simple ornament. This was done to show some sort of authority; for example, one was buried with a clay box and another with a staff in his hand. More research and excavating needs to be done on the villages of El-Omari, so we can get a better understanding of the Old Kingdom in Lower Egypt.

El-Amarna Site

El-Amarna formerly known as Akhetaten, is a flat piece of land located beside the Nile River Valley. The area is a plain field separated from the Nile Valley by a strip of palm trees, it stretches 12 kilometers from the north to south. The area on which it stretches is mostly outlined with ruins of temples, palaces and houses that stretch the entire distance.

There are more than twenty-five tombs facing the base of the cliff front that is located there. Six tombs are located at the north side near Darb El-Malik, while nineteen of them are located at the south side. These tombs are built highly complicated to ensure that they are protected from thieves. Most of them start with open court that leads to three chambers, within these chambers there are papyrus columns that meet in the rear end which have a statue of the dead looking toward the entrance.

Among these tombs there are various famous tombs that have been discovered, the first is Ay's tomb, which is considered to be the finest of the tombs there. This tomb was found by Giovanni Battista Belzoni, while walking through the Nile Valley here he found some rocks that were out of place so he poked through them with a stick and found a hole that was deep, he and associates removed the rocks and found a tomb that the Arabs dubbed the tomb of the monkey, because of the rows of paintings of apes that were present. King Ay reigned for only four years between 1339 and 1335 BC and his tomb was only half completed. There are some descriptive scenes of the streets of ancient Akhenaten, a few moments in the palace of Ay are depicted; a woman of the harem having her hair done. In the temple the most complete version of the Hymn to the Sun is decorating the right hand side of the doorway.

There are other tombs here also a couple of the more notable one are Huya, who was the steward of Queen Tiyi, the queenmother and wife of Amenhotep III. Meri-re II who was the superintendant of the palace of Queen Nefertiti. Meri-re I a high rank priest of Aton, and Panhesy the chief servitor of the Aton in Akenhaten. Aton was the god that Akhenaten worshipped and some of these people had shrines to them.

Buhen

Buhen is a fortress that was built in Egypt during the 12^th dynasty rule of Sesostris III, around the year 1860 BCE. The fort is located near the head of the Nile River, and lies near the ancient Nubian border. The fort was a part of a chain of forts that lined the Nile. The other forts along the banks were Mirgissa, Shalfak, Uronarti, Askut, Dabenarti, Semna, and Kumma. All the forts had visual contact with one another to warn of would-be attackers.

The fortress itself covered over 150m of the West bank of the Nile. It spanned across 1.3 hectares, and had within its wall a small town laid out in a grid system. At its peak it had a population of around 3500 people. The fortress also included the administration for the whole fortified region of the Second Cataract. Its fortifications included a 3m deep moat, drawbridges, bastions, buttresses, ramparts, battlements, loopholes, and a catapult. The walls of the fort were about 5m thick and stood 10m high. In front of the main walls there was a secondary wall that had the moat in front of it. This meant that attackers would have to cross the moat under archer fire, and then climb both of the walls that surrounded the city.

It is unsure if the fort actually ever saw any battles, but there are burn marks on the front walls. It is not known if these marks are from a battle or an accidental fire in the past. The fort was occupied not just by the Egyptians, but also the Kushites, and the Meroitic peoples without need for major reconstruction. The complex probably served as a customs and naval depot for the Egyptians. It would have been a checkpoint for goods entering from Nubia and southern Africa, and to restrict river traffic from the south. The fortress at Buhen today has been covered by Lake Nasser, which was the result of the building of the Aswan High Dam in 1964. Before the site was covered with water, a team led by Walter B. Emery excavated and published their findings to ensure a record of the site.

Bir Dunqash Roman Period

The Bir Dunqash site is located at N24 56’ 22" / E33 52’ 14" has uncovered a compound estimated at 22 m x 13m. This site has three interior rooms with wheel-ridged redware sherds and red slip sherds surrounding it. These sherds have been dated to be roughly around the Roman or Byzantine date.

This site gives evidence that the trade routes from Coptos to Berenice were actually farther north than they had previously been stated and it gives evidence of Ptolemaic occupation in the important gold mining center. It has also shown that the Roman constructions were rebuilt several times and the latest shows that the constructing of the structures have certain features that are different from their predecessor, the Ptolemaic occupation.

The difference are that they haven’t been laid out using any unit of measurement, relatively heavy walls with corner towers, and show evidence that the cisterns are made of baked brick and large. Another difference is in the way the rooms are laid out. They have one to two rooms along the walls and the units of three or more rooms are placed in the corners.

Bir Sahara and Bir Tarwafi

The Bir (a bir is a well) Sahara and Bir Tarwafi are basins in the western desert of Egypt. This area was occupied by different groups from as long as 33,000 years ago to 5200 B.C. They were formed by deflation and have elongated oval shapes. They are about 10 meters below the level of the surrounding flat plain. The area was occupied only during time periods where there was a climatic change of a significant increase in moisture, causing the basins to fill with water. The Bir Sahara has spring vents surrounding it and a lack of a distinct peripheral drainage net. This suggests that the lake was fed by artesian springs associated with the aquifer in the underlying sandstone.

Both basins have irregular elongated outlines, about 8 km and 15 km in maximum length, and are oriented north-northeast to southwest. There are numerous bays, peninsulas and buttes. The central parts contain modern dunes, extensive patches of limestone and marl. There are shallow wadis surrounding the birs which disappear into the plain after a few hundred meters.

These two basins provide the basic sequence for the early Upper Pleistocene. Several distinct lithostratigraphic units from the framework for the sequence. It is composed of lacustrine and eolian events associated with human occupations as well as rich vertebrate and invertebrate faunas.

The first occupation is on plateau carbonates and the underlying sands. There are numerous Acheulian sites, and the tools found are characterized by less abraded tools, some have faces that are almost completely fresh. Next is a layer of limestone remains with deflated sands surrounding the limestone. Artifacts there consist of Upper Acheulian tools, mostly bifaces, all heavily abraded. Several of the tools found apparently represented artifacts that were worked or thrown in from the adjacent Acheulian campsites.

After this level is the final Acheulian springs, with occasional Acheulian bifaces found there. Some faunal remains found were ostrich eggshell, a tooth belonging to a warthog, and other bones. This period ended when the spring dried up. This was followed by a significant period of eolian erosion.

After this, a Mousterian culture existed during a period of dune formation. Therefore, the Mousterian artifacts are heavily sandblasted. The tools found were denticulates and notches. After the dune there was an intricate series of lacustrine, shore and inblown sediments. There are several Mousterian occupations. These people probably lived near a shoreline, and slight differences in elevations of artifacts may be accounted for by changes in the shoreline. There are several layers, a black layer, a sand layer, a vegetation layer, and silt layers separated by a burnt layer. After the silt layer is a layer of marl. Both the sand layer and the vegetation layer contain an extensive Mousterian settlement. The silt and marl units represent an expanding lake. After this, a dune began forming on the sites, which were then covered by new units of silts. Large amounts of mollusks including land snails were found here.

Aswan

The Nile river as we know it, is the main artery for Nubia and Egypt. The present course of the river is traceable to at least 25,000 years ago and is the determining factor of the topography of the region. Basically a rainless area for the majority of the year, it is encountered by annual flooding which makes this a more viable and habitable place to live. Tributaries of the Nile swell when late summer rains cause floods from the Ethiopia plateau region. This is all pertinent information for the following reason; to gain control of the Nile River and it’s flooding tendencies – construction of the first Aswan Dam began in 1899.

Aswan was marked as the gateway to Egypt from the south, standing as the chief outpost of the pharaohs. Also obviously, this is the place where the arrival of the annual Nile River flood was signaled. More significantly, the area provided granite for many ancient monuments throughout Egypt from it’s quarries.

Aswan has two main archeological surveys, the first being an extensive one taking place from 1907-1911 by gentlemen named Maclver and Woolley from the University of Pennsylvania. Specifically this site, of Karanog, included an extensive village, cemetery, and governor’s palace of the Meroitic people. By studying the artifacts found, this expedition was able to contribute detailed information about the culture these people lived so many years ago.

The second archeological task of more significance is that of the Temple of Isis. This was a temple built in the Ptolemaic period (332-330 BC). At the time it was known as a sanctity of the popular Isis cult and a strong contender to early Christianity. Isis was the goddess of motherhood and sexuality. The temple itself was found on the island of Philae in the river near Aswan. But due to the inundated waters caused by the Aswan Dam, the island of Philae is no more. For this reason, an international team of archeologist, (UNESCO), transported. The Temple of Isis and all other monuments to nearby Aglika island only 500 feet away. Most of the original structures have been reconstructed, and to this day remain a popular tourist attraction for Egypt and the Aswan area. There is even a sound and light show that tours you through the ruins.

Adulis

Adulis is a port city on the Red Sea. Throughout most of ancient times it stood in the forefront of trade between Yemen and the cities of Nubia. Even more impressive in this region was the city of Aksum, home of the Aksumites. Some say that the Aksum Kingdom was thriving in the first century BC. Like most cities that thrived and grew, Adulis and Aksum can contribute their success to the geographic location of the city.

Situated between the Red Sea and the Atbara River in present day Ethiopia, Aksum sat in the middle of great trade routes. Many consider the Aksum Kingdom to be one of Africa's greatest civilizations along with Egypt and Meroe (Munro 1). Adulis, with its churches and palaces built of local basalt, became Aksum's chief port though still ruled by its hereditary rulers, the kings of Gabaz. From Adulis, the treasures of Africa including gold, emeralds, obsidian, ivory, spices and slaves were shipped off to Egypt, Rome, India and Sri Lanka. Imported into this port were a variety of important materials including, metalwork, iron weaponry, wine, olive oil, fabrics and glassware.

Abu Simbel

The site of Abu Simbel has an interesting history. The first part of the name, Abu, means holy man or saint. It began as a temple constructed in Nubia by the Egyptian Pharaoh Ramesses II. The temple was to symbolize his power and his divine nature. At the entrance of the temple are four statues each measuring 65 feet in height. Although the temple was built primarily as a dedication to the gods of Amon-Ra, Ptah, and Ra-Harakhte, these statues are of the great pharaoh Ramesses II. The statue to the left of the entrance became damaged when, in ancient times, an earthquake is thought to have broken off the head and torso. Directly above the entrance is a statue of Ra-Harakhte, one manifestation of the sun god. The temple faces east so that it welcomes the rising sun. On the upper most level of the entrance is a row of baboon statues.

The entrance of the temple leads to a large hall that has gigantic pillars with figures of Osiris in front of them. This hall leads to a chamber that holds statues of Ptah, Amon-Ra, Ra-Harakhte, and Ramesses II. On two days during the year, once in late February and once in late October, the first beams of sunlight hit this chamber and illuminate the statues. In addition to this temple, Ramesses II had another smaller temple built. It was named The Temple of Hathor, in honor of both the goddess Hathor and his wife Nefertari. Like its larger counterpart, the Temple of Hathor has statues surrounding its entrance. It has six statues standing 33 feet high. There are two of Ramesses with one of Nefertari dressed as Hathor flanking them. Smaller statues of their children flank theirs. Unlike all other Nubian temples, Abu Simbel was left alone and not turned into a church by later religions. It stayed the same until J.L. Burckhardt discovered it in 1813.

After being discovered in 1813 by J.L. Burckhardt, the temples were a tourist attraction for Victorians who were visiting Egypt, even while being partly buried beneath the sand. The temples stayed in the same place until the 1960's. During this time the Aswan High Dam was built. Because of the placement of the dam in relation to the temples, the Egyptian Government found both temples would end up being close to 163 feet underwater when the dam was completed. They then received funds from the United Nations to move the temples to a higher location. The effort cost $39 million. The temples were dismantled and reconstructed 195 feet above where they were originally built. Each temple was rebuilt in the exact relationship as they had been. The broken statue was not even changed, so as to keep the original look. Originally, the temples were carved out of the side of a sandstone cliff. Since the reconstruction moved them to the top, an artificial mountain was created around them.