Napata

Napata is an ancient egyptian/Nubian city located near the Nile in southern part of the country, representing the southern limit of the Egyptian empire from around 1460 to 1100 B.C. Napata became the center of the Nubian Kingdom from around 800 B.C. and lasted for over 400 years. Nubia, referred to by the egyptians as Kush, represents the area south of the Egyptian empire in Africa, which was strongly influence by the Egyptians. Napata is located in the Fourth Cataract on the Gebel Barkal, a small mountain where the Egyptian and Nubians believe the god Amun resided.

Napata has several pyramids near it, the first and largest belonging to Taharqa. Taharqa became pharaoh at 690 B.C., succeeding his brother Shebitku, and ruled for twenty-six years. He is known for his work on the Temple of Amun at Karnak as well as work in Memphis and Thebes, building and rebuilding temples and shrines. During his rule, most of Egypt was taken over by the Assyrian King Assurbanipal, from which he fled to Napata where he finished his reign as the of the Kush.

After Taharqa, nineteen other kings and fifty-three queens were buried near Napata. The 25th dynasty was started and dominated by rulers from Kush. Amenirdis I, daughter of King Kashta (760-747 B.C.) began the 25th dynasty by reunifying Egypt. The pyraminds there are much smaller than infamous pyramids in the north and are known for their unusually steep slope. They were built of sandstone and, thus, are very weathered down.

The Kush followed the Egyptians by constructing their tombs as the traditional tumulus; circuliar structure, vertical slabs, filled with rubble and sand, and with a chapel on the east side. They also followed the Egyptian burial customs and traditions. Napatan Kings were mummified, placed in an anthropoid coffin, and accompanied by the canopic jars. Later kings built the pyraminds.

Nagada

Nagada was a city in pre-dynastic Upper Egypt, representing a major culture of that time. Nagada has three different spellings in certain texts including Nakada or Naqada, and is usually broken up into three separate cultures: Amratian (Nagada I, 4200 - 3700 BC), Gerzean A (Nagada II, 3700 - 3250 BC), and Gerzean B (Nagada III, 3250 - 3050 BC).

In 1894-1895, 28 kilometers northwest of Luxor, Flinders Petrie unearthed three cemeteries at Nagada that contained 2200 graves, the largest mortuary in pre-dynastic Egypt. Along with the human remains, Petrie found mudbricks, dog bones, and pottery. In later excavations, piles of mudbrick from collapsed walls were found. This suggests that Nagada was the precursor to the burial monuments constructed by later Egyptian civilizations. Petrie also excavated 3 brick-lined tombs and one undisturbed grave with a number of sumptuary grave goods in gold foil, and other decorative material. Along the sides of the tomb were some human bones and in the center was a pile of bones with six skulls.

During the Nagada II period, people buried several objects with the dead, characteristic of that period. These items included copper, ivory, bone and shell jewelry, and small model figurines of humans, oxen and boats, together with model weapons and food. These item were believed to have magical purposes and helped with ensure that the dead would have a content afterlife. The people who lived in Nagada were followers of the god Seth, the god who killed Osiris, the god of the dead. Nagada is considered to be the center for the followers of Seth.

Nabta Playa

Nabta Playa is an internally drained basin that served as an important ceremonial center for nomadic tribes during the early part of the Holocene epoch. Located 100 km west of Abu Simbel in southern Egypt, Nabta contains a number of standing and toppled megaliths. They include flat, tomb-like stone structures and a small stone circle that predates Stonehenge and other similar prehistoric sites by at least 1000 years.

The site was first discovered in 1974 by a group of scientists headed by Fred Wendorf, an Anthropology Professor from Southern Methodist University in Texas. The team had stopped for a break from their uncomfortable drive from the Libyan border to the Nile Valley when, as Wendorf stated, “we were standing there minding our own business, when we noticed potsherds and other artifacts." Throughout the 1970’s and 1980’s, Wendorf returned to Nabta several times. He determined that humans had occupied the Nabta area off and on for thousands of years, dating from as early as 11,000 years ago up until about 4,800 years ago. Although the area was occupied for more then 5,000 years, the majority of the stone structures and other artifacts originated between 7,000 and 6,500 years ago. It was considered by most to be the height of human occupation at Nabta.

Nabta became a habitable area because of a climatic change that occurred over North Africa around 12,000 years ago. This climatic change was caused by a northward shift of the summer monsoons. This shift brought enough rain to the Nabta region to enable it to sustain life for both humans and animals. Although it was a small amount of rain, usually around four to eight inches (10-15 cm) per year, it was enough to fill the playas with water for months at a time. Between 11,000 and 9,300 years ago, Nabta saw its first settlements. The people living at Nabta herded cattle, made ceramic vessels, and set up seasonal camps around the playa. These people regarded cattle in much the same way as modern peoples of West Africa regard them. The blood and milk of the cattle was more significant than the meat. The ceramics that were found from this period are minimal, but are considered to be some of the oldest identified in Africa.

Once fall came and the playa dried up, these people had to migrate to areas where more water was available, possibly to the Nile in the east or perhaps to areas further south. Larger settlements began to pop up shortly after 9,000 years ago. These people were able to dig wells that supplied them with enough water to live at Nabta year round. They survived on a number of wild plants and small animals like hares and gazelles. By around 8,100 years ago there is evidence for the domestication of larger animals including goats and sheep. This is also a time when the people of Nabta started to produce pottery locally.

Settlements became larger and more sophisticated. One settlement from this period contains 18 houses arranged in two, possibly three straight lines. It also contains numerous fire hearths and these amazing walk-in wells. This settlement also shows the establishment of an organized labor force. This settlement and all the other settlements at Nabta were abandoned for a couple of long stretches between 8,000 and 7,000 years ago when two major droughts occurred. These droughts caused the water table to be lowered to around the same level as it is today, causing Nabta to be hyper-arid and virtually lifeless for long periods of time.

The groups of people that returned to Nabta after the droughts exhibited substantial advancement toward a more complex society that expressed a greater degree of organization and control. This control and organization was probably centered around some ritual or religious belief system. This is the time period when most of the major structures were constructed at Nabta. They constructed five megalithic alignments that radiated from a cluster of stones that has been named E-96-1 Structure A. These megaliths were constructed out of quartzite sandstone that came from exposed sandstone that was at least a half -kilometer away. The stones were erected and embedded into the playa. With the help of GPS satellite technology, recent surveys by Wendorf and University of Colorado at Boulder’s Astronomy Professor J. McKim Malville have allowed them to map out the exact location of these stone alignments. These studies confirm that one of the alignments of the megaliths form an east-west line and another alignment forms a north-south line.

Although more research needs to be done, many scientists, including Malville, believe that the alignments had an astronomical significance. Three hundred meters north of these alignments is the stone calendar circle. Compared to Stonehenge, this circle is very small, measuring roughly 4 m in diameter. The calendar consists of a number of stones, the main ones being four pairs of larger ones. Each of these four pairs were set close together to form what Wendorf calls “gates.” Two of these pairs align to form a line very close to a true north-south line, and the other two pairs or gates align to form an east-west line. The east-west alignment is calculated to be where the sun would have risen and set from the summer solstice 6,500 years ago.

Fire hearths from around the circle date to around 6,800 years ago. Another 300 meters north of the calendar circle is a stone covered tumuli that contained the remains of cattle. One of the tumuli contained a cow that was fully articulated. This particular tumulus was dug into the ground surrounded by a clay frame. It had a roof made from the limbs of tamarisk. It was then covered with broken rocks that formed a mound eight meters in diameter and one meter high. Wood from the roof of the chamber has been dated to around 6,500 years ago. Other tumuli that were found in the area were more basic and consisted of unshaped stones that contained disarticulated cattle bones. They had no subsurface structure and were basically piles of bones covered with stones. These tumuli were dated to about 5,500 years ago.

Another major feature at Nabta is a group of thirty “complex structures.” These structures are located about a kilometer south of the cattle tumuli measuring 500 meters in length and 200 meters in width. The framework was constructed by using roughly shaped or unshaped stones that were set upright to form a structure that was oval in shape measuring 5 meters by 4 meters. Aside from a few minor details, all of the structures were basically the same. They all face slightly west of north and they all have one or two large stone slabs that lay horizontally in the center of the structure. What makes them unique is that they have been built over large mushroom-shaped tablerocks. The tablerocks were shaped by years and years of erosion and then covered by two to three and a half meters of playa clays and silts.

It is unclear as to how the Nabtians were able to locate these tablerocks. One theory is that they were located by accident when they were digging wells, but nobody knows for sure. The largest excavated structure reveals that a large pit was dug before the erection of the walls. The pit was about 6 m in diameter and 4 m deep. It was dug down to the tablerock. They shaped the rock to have three convex sides and one side that was worked to form a straight edge that face north. In the pit they placed another large shaped stone or sculpture that resembled a cow or some other large animal. The sculpture was placed upright with its axis facing north, the same way as the tablerock below it. The pit was backfilled with playa clay one meter thick in order to support the sculpture. Two smaller stones were also placed in the pit to help secure the sculpture even more. Once the sculpture was in place and the pit was completely backfilled, the surface stones were then erected and placed into position. Testing done on charcoal from around the structures indicates a date to 5,500 - 5,000 years ago. The actual function of the complex remains a mystery.

About 4,800 years ago there was another climatic change. The African monsoons shifted south to approximately the same area that they were prior to 12,000 years ago. The land became hyper-arid again and caused human habitation at Nabta to cease. The cattle worshipping people of Nabta had to migrate to a more livable area. But to where did these people migrate? Some people believe that the people of Nabta eventually made their way to the Nile Valley. Perhaps they were the people responsible for the rise of the Egyptian Empire. This theory is based on the prominence of cattle in the religious belief system of Pre-dynastic Egypt continuing into the Old Kingdom.

In ancient Egypt, cattle were deified and regarded as the earthly representative of the gods. Egyptian Pharaohs were said to represent two gods. Horus represented Upper Egypt and Seth represented Lower Egypt. Horus was the son of Hathor who was depicted as either a cow or a strong bull. Another Egyptian god that is represented by a bull is the god of rain, a very important entity to the people of Nabta, considering that life or death could have been determined by the amount of rain they received. Another point of interest is that pre-Egyptian societies did not place the same importance on cattle in either a social or religious capacity, indicating that outside influence must have played a part in the Old Kingdom belief system. This may have happened because the pastoralists from Nabta came to the Nile to conquer and take over the land from their farming neighbors. Perhaps they simply joined together with the farmers and their beliefs were blended with those of the farmers. No matter how you look at it, given the closeness of Nabta to the Nile, there had to have been interaction between them and ideas had to be exchanged to some degree.

Whether or not the people of Nabta had anything to do with the Egyptian civilization, it is still a site of great importance. It dates to a time when climatic and social changes were occurring. Complex societies or civilizations were starting to emerge not only in Africa, but throughout the world. Nabta helps to provide us with a better understanding of what life was like during this time in history.

Mersa Matruh

Mersa Matruh is a modern city that lies about 300 km west of Alexandria along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Mersa Matruh is said to have the most beautiful sand beaches in the world and contains many tourist attractions. However,as modern as this city appears, there are many ancient cites nearby. The city is built upon the ancient Roman town of Paraetonium, which was built to be a military fort at the delta of the Nile River. This ancient city is also known as Amunia and is said to have been visited by Alexander the Great, who built and laid out the city, on his way to pay tribute to the Egyptian God of Amun in order for him to become a Egyptian pharaoh.

Mersa Matruh proved to be in a key location during World War II due to the many British-German Battles fought here. There is more evidence to this at the site of Rommel's Cave which lies nearby. Rommel's cave is where the German Commander, Erwin Rommel, would make his retreat at the end of the day to draw up his military plans. Rommel's cave is now a museum containing Rommel's own armory donated by his son (http://www.middleeast.com/mersamatruh.htm).

Another popular site is Cleopatra's Bath, also known as Ain el-Hammam, a warm spring located about seven km from Mersa Matruh and lies on the path which leads to the temple of Amun. There is no evidence found that says Cleopatra herself actually bathed here, but more likely, the name is simply a romantic attachment used in many Egyptian names (http://www.touregypt.net/alex.htm).

About 24 km from Mersa Matruh, there is an ancient temple from the time of Ramsses II also known as Ramsses the Great. This temple dates back to 1200 BC and could possibly be the personal temple of the great pharaoh himself. However, there seems to be some debate about what this temple was actually used for.

There is also a second ancient site near Mersa Matruh that dates back to the Greco-Roman Period. This site, called Marina Ruins-Alamein, contains temples, tombs and nobles' houses and is considered to be the largest archaeological city second only to Alexandria (http://www.touregypt.net/mersamatrouh.htm). The original Roman name of this city was Leukasis, meaning the White Armour. There was also a temple found in this city thought to be a temple of the Egyptian goddess, Isis. This ancient city was discovered in 1985 (http://alexandriaegypt.com/tourism/komalshoqafa.htm).

Memphis

Memphis is the Greek version of one of the many names the Ancient Egyptians used to between Upper and Lower Egypt, on the Nile delta. Memphis was discovered by King Menes soon after the unification of Egypt (apx. 2575 BC) and became the first capital in history. The original name of the city was Inb-hd, which means “The White Walls” (a reference to the white walls that surrounded the city). Memphis, which means “The Beautiful Monument”, was originally used for the pyramid of Pepi I, but from the 18th Dynasty on, this name was extended to cover the entire region or city where this pyramid was built.

During the Old Kingdom, Memphis served as the nation’s capital and it held the king’s primary residence. After the end of the Old Kingdom, Memphis remained the political and administrative center of Lower and Middle Egypt. The importance of the city was also recognized by Theban kings of the 18th Dynasty. Thutmosis III and Amenhotep II often held residence at Memphis. Also, to be accepted as a king in Egypt, one needed to be crowned at Memphis.

Memphis was the principle place of the cult of the god Ptah, who is accepted as a creator-god in the region. There had been many temples built for him, his wife Sekhmet, and their son Nefertem. Now the temples lie in ruins, or have been demolished, destroyed and stripped of their riches and decorations. It was from one of those temples, Hut-Ka-Ptah, that the Greeks derived the name Aegyptos, hence the modern name Egypt.

Closely associated with the ancient city’s site are the necroplises of Memphis. These ancient cemeteries are where famous pyramids and the Great Sphinx are located. Memphis out-lived its importance at the end of the Ptolmaic Dynasty when the Arabs built the nearby city of Al Fustat just 15 miles north of the ancient capital. Today, Al Fustat is better known as Cairo.

One of the most important features of Memphis today is that it houses the largest alabaster statue of the world, the Sphinx that represents Amenophis II. Also, an 80 ton colossal statue of Ramesses II, made of crystallized limestone that once stood at the entrance to the temple of Ptah is in Memphis.

Meidum Pyramid

The Meidum Pyramid, one of the earliest pyramids, is located 30 miles south of Memphis. It may have been built for King Huni, the last ruler of the Third Dynasty. No inscriptions have been found giving the name of the builder but there is graffiti. The graffiti was scribbled on the walls by visitors of the XVIII Dynasty, which suggested that the pyramid was at that time considered to be the work of Seneferu, the first ruler of the Fourth Dynasty (2575-2551 BC). One piece of graffiti translates, "On the twelfth day of the fourth month of summer in the forty first year of the reign of Tuthmosis III, the scribe Aakheperkare-senb, son of Amenmesu (the Scribe and Ritualist of the deceased King Tuthmosis I), came to see the beautiful temple of Seneferu. He found it as through heaven were within it and the sun rising in it. Then he said, 'May heaven rain with the fresh myrrh, may it drip with incense upon the roof of the temple of King Seneferu.'" Other graffiti dating as early as the VIth Dynasty mentioned Seneferu but did not state the temple belonged to him. At least two other pyramids at Dahshur were built by Seneferu that can be compared to Meidum. Many egyptologists credit Seneferu with ordering of the face of the pyramid.

In 1882, Sir Gaston Maspero was the first archeologist to enter the pyramid and noted that there was no sarcophagus. Sir Flinders Petrie first excavated Meidum in 1891. Petrie determined how the pyramid was constructed from the outside. To verify his theory his assistant, G.A. Wainwright bored a tunnel through the masonry at the base from the east face almost to the tomb chamber, which enabled Wainwright to study the foundations.

The initial building resembled a mastaba with a square base or a small step pyramid. The first form of the superstructure is a 7 stepped pyramid made of Tura limestone. A considerable enlargement took place soon after and the pyramid was converted to eight steps. Though both the initial construction and enlargements were meant to be final, another transformation took place. The steps were filled in with packed stone and the whole structure was overlaid with a smooth facing of tura limestone. Remarkably, the casing and backing stones did not rest on the underlying rock. They rested on platform of stone blocks that was evened up with a layer of sand. Sand, if dried and compacted properly, makes an effective foundation.

The tura limestone that covered the final structure was later mined for more modern structures. Some blocks recovered bore drawings etched by the quarrymen. These drawings showed buildings with two, three and four steps. It is difficult now to attach much reliance to these sketches but they may be regarded as supporting evidence for the several transformations before reaching the final form. The buildings belonging to this pyramid were arranged according to what had become the standard design for an Old Kingdom complex. These complexes were essentially the pyramid itself and at least one subsidiary pyramid standing on high ground within an enclosure, a mortuary temple, a sloping causeway and a building on the western fringe. Meidum’s valley building was connected with a river by a canal dug to enable the funeral procession of boats and avoid a long overland trek. A wide, mud-plaster pavement, bounded by a stone wall, surrounded the pyramid and the entrance was through the north face. Between the south face and the wall, there was the earliest subsidiary pyramid.

The mortuary temple was built against the east face and was connected entirely of Tura limestone. There are no carvings of any kind decorating the walls of the passages between chambers. There is a low limestone altar intended for daily offerings of food and drink for the dead king. There are two tall monolithic slabs of limestone with rounded tops mounted on low rectangular bases of the same material and one stands on each side of the alter. The absence of particular inscription as well as the undressed stones that formed the lowest course of the temple walls would suggest this building was never finished.

Merimde Beni-Salam

The site found at Merimde Beni-Salam is the earliest know settlement in Lower Egypt. It was occupied during the predynastic period. Found by German archaeologist, Herman Junker in 1928. It was excavated through 1939. Through carbon dating, the site was discovered to have been occupied between 4880 BC and 4250 BC. Unfortunately, most of Junker’s notes were destroyed in World War II. Eiwanger has conducted more recent studies.

The site found 50km northwest of Cairo, was thought by Junker to be about 160,000sq. m. The site is naturally raised above the level of a flood. The mound of Merimde covers 44 acres. The settlement had been constructed on a natural rise above the inundation, and gradually rose as the town was built upon it’s own debris. It is believed that there were about 5000 occupants at one time at this site. Because the site was occupied for a long time, the progression of house styles and street patterns reflect the growing level of urban organization. Large pits found were understood to be granaries. Some scholars believe that Merimde pooled together surplus crops in some form of a community organization. Besides growing grains, residents of Merimde reared cattle, goats, and pigs. They hunted animals such as antelope. The Nile River gave them an ample supply of fish, shellfish, turtle, and hippopotamus. The pottery found at the site was rather plain and simple in shape. Tools were also found. Those made of stone and flint would have been used for butchery, craftwork, and felling trees. Some scholars believe that the pear shaped flint mace heads were used not for the killing of animals, but for the use on other humans, and believed that Merimde may have been at conflict with a neighboring community.

The Merimde funerary culture was quite different than that of other predynastic sites. Instead of interring the dead in large, organized cemeteries, the bodies were buried inside the settlement, mainly in the unoccupied sections of the town. It is impossible to determine if the bodies were buried in the houses while living people were still occupying them. The bodies were buried in shallow oval pits and laid on their sides in a fetal position. The bodies very rarely had grave offerings, apart from the occasional beads, amulets or reed mats.

Maadi

In Lower Egypt, a predynastic site was uncovered in the 1930's by Menghin and Amer. It was named Maadi and had apparently been occupied from 3600 BC to 3000 BC. It is located near the southern suburbs of Cairo, Egypt.

Maadi is a unique predynastic site. It is located on what used to be the Wadi el-Tih, an historical route to the copper mines of the Sinai Peninsula. There is also evidence of foreign house styles and pottery, domesticated donkeys, intricate storage facilities and an advanced copper industry. In 3600 BC, foreign trade goods started to reach Egypt having a great effect on the communities in Lower Egypt. The prosperity of the trade networks later lead to vast settlements in Egypt such as Memphis and the settlement at Cairo.

The Maadi settlement covered about 45 acres of land. Almost all of the houses were oval in shape and constructed with post walls and mud-daub wicker frame. Strangely enough, some of the homes were constructed underground. These homes had entrances through a slanting passage with steps that were faced in stone. The posts for these homes were driven into the ground to support the roof which was made of light-weight material such as woven mats. In the center these homes had sunken hearths.

Unlike many of the grave sites in Egypt, the Maadi culture had very simple burials. These types of burials have distinguished the Lower societies from the Upper societies in Egypt. generally, the grave sites are located south of the settlement about 1 km. In the 1950s, 468 burials were discovered over an acre of land.

The graves were very simple. They were very shallow circular or oval pits. Some of the pits were covered by large limestone blocks. The Maadi culture buried some possessions with their deceased loved ones. Artifacts found in the graves were pots, both red and black ceramics, stone vases made of alabaster, limestone, and basalt. Flake-blade tools, trapezoidal and rhomboidal palettes were also uncovered. Jewelry such as bracelets and combs were found, along with shell containers. They also buried objects of trade in the graves, such as ornamental carnelian traded from the eastern desert, colored stone bead and traces of malachite and manganese which were probably used as pigments. Even though the Maadi were settled on the trade routes for copper, very few graves contained copper in them. The possible explanation for this was that they viewed copper as an essential element of living considering it a waste to bury it with the dead.

The Maadi settlement was a stepping stone that allowed other cultures to flourish. The site was well preserved and a wonderful find in the archaeological world. Unfortunately this site was not widely publicized when it was uncovered and little has been written about it since.

Luxor

Luxor is a temple located in Egypt. It has a north-south axis, whereas most Egyptian temples have an east-west axis reflecting the rising and setting of the sun. There are many different entrances and statues all around the temple. Most of Luxor was built by the pharaoh Amenhotep III who reigned from 1391 - 1353 B.C. Others, such as Ramses II, Alexander the Great, and even some Romans, added to the original until it became what we see today. Somewhat surprisingly, every ruler who added to the temple aligned In 1937, a man named R.A. Schwaller de Lubicz began a fifteen year study on Luxor. He was a mathematician, philosopher, and egyptologist. He took a trained team of surveyors and draftsmen and they measured, analyzed and recorded everything about the Temple, all of the stones, passage ways, columns, and statues. He then wrote a book called Temple of Man. While he was studying the temple, he found a record of Egyptian's understanding of the laws of creation.

John Anthony West once said "Because there is nothing in our society that remotely corresponds to a Temple of Luxor, it is difficult to understand why Egypt should have exercised such infinite pains and genius on what is ultimately a symbolic gesture. It is even more difficult for us to understand the uses to which it was put and the effect it must have had on those exposed to it." Another statement that he made was "the Temple is in the nature of a magic rite, extending over two millenia, designed to evoke in the It is clear that the temple of Luxor has caught more than a few imaginations. In Las Vegas, Nevada there is a hotel replica of Luxor. It is a 30-story Pyramid shaped hotel with reproductions of artifacts from the Luxor and Karnak Temples. There are painted hieroglyphics, the Nile River, and a full size replica of King Tut's tomb within the hotel. It is a fascinating and entertaining hotel. A person can even learn facts about Luxor just by visiting

KV 22: Tomb of Amenhotep III

Located in the West Valley of the Kings, KV 22 was first discovered by Europeans in 1799 when French engineers Jollis and Devilliers explored the tomb. They found that it had already been looted by grave robbers and only a few figurines were left in the tomb. From 1905 to 1914, Theodore Davis excavated the tomb but details of his work have been lost. In 1915, Howard Carter worked in the tomb and in 1989 Waseda University began to clear the tomb again. The tomb itself is laid out very much like the tombs of Amenophis II (KV 35) and Tuthmosis IV (KV 43). From the entrance of the tomb to the back wall is approximately 85 meters. This is a large tomb, as a comparison with Tutankhamun’s tomb shows.

The interior of the tomb was originally covered by paintings. Salt leeching through the walls of the tomb resulted in the paintings crumbling away from the walls. The columns inside the tomb have also started to show evidence of salt damage. In 1990, restoration efforts began in an attempt to salvage the paintings.

Kom Ombo

Kom Ombo is home to an unusual double temple built during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods (300-80 B.C.) ending with Cleopatra, who is mentioned in some of the hieroglyphics. The temple is dedicated to the crocodile-headed god Sobek, god of fertility and creator of the world, and the falcon-headed Haroeris (Horus the Elder), the solar war god. The temple is located on a bend in the east bank of the Nile and about 20 miles north of Aswan. This area was once a home to a large number of crocodiles, which were held to be sacred. The only crocodiles in-sight, now, are mummified and located in the chapel of Hathor within the temple.

The temple was excavated last century with parts lost into the Nile and to an earthquake in 1992. The temple has two of everything, to accommodate the two gods, and among the projections on the walls, in detail, are sets of medical instruments carved into the stone. The crocodile-headed god Sobek wears a crown of double plumes which are located on top of horizontal ram’s horns. A sun disk sits at the center base of the plumes, and uraei (rearing cobras) rest on each side. Also visible in the temple are well-preserved bases of walls that allow you to see how the Egyptians got the stone blocks so close to one another by using water and wooden inserts.

Karnak

Karnak, a village in Upper Egypt, was built in honor of Amon. Recent excavations have pushed back the site date to around 3200 B.C. The ruins of Karnak cover a considerable area, though nothing remains of the houses, palaces or gardens that must have surrounded the temple in ancient times. The most northerly temple is the Temple of Mont, the god of war. Little remains of this temple but its foundation. The southern temple, which has a horseshoe-shaped lake, was devoted to the goddess Mut, wife of Amon. Between these two temples lay the largest of all Egyptian temples, and one of the largest in the world, the great metropolitan temple of Amon. It is not one complete temple, but rather was built by many different pharaohs, over a great amount of time, making the site a record of Egyptian history.

Many of the main roads which lead to the temples of Karnak used to be lined with sphinxes. The sphinxes which line the entrance to the First Pylon of Karnak combine the body of a lion with the head of a ram. The ram was a symbol of the god Amon for whom the temple was built. Each sphinx protects, between its forelegs, a standing statue of the king-- Ramesses II Standing in the shadow of the First Pylon of the Temple of Amon at Karnak (in Luxor, Egypt), one is struck by the length of its east-west axis and the colossal size of its columns. There are no fewer than 10 pylons, separated by courts and halls. And, like all other temples in Egypt, this one symbolizes the mound of the original creation. The ground rises ever so gradually from the entrance toward the sanctuary. The columns are stone replicas of the vegetation which was growing in the the marshy land around the mound of creation.

In the center of this first court are the ruins of the kiosk of Taharqa (690-664 B.C.) Beyond the kiosk before the Second Pylon are two standing statues of Ramesses II (c.1279-1213 B.C.) After the Second Pylon, the The Great Hypostyle Hall of the Karnak Temple was built by Ramses I, but much of it was decorated by Seti I and Ramses II, both of whom are credited with building it although the actual project began earlier. The north-south axis of the hall provides views which reveal not only the immensity but also the practicality of the architecture. The central row of 12 columns on the east-west axis are 69 feet (21meters) in height, about 33 feet (10 meters) in circumference, and have open papyrus capitals. The 122 columns in the side aisles are 43 feet (13 meters) in height, 27.5 feet (8.4 meters) in circumference, and have closed papyrus-bud capitals. The area of the vast hall is 5,800 yards.

The whole of this hall was roofed with stone slabs, and the interior was quite dark. The difference in height between the central and the side aisle columns was used to provide natural light through clerestory windows which have vertical stone slats. Historical reliefs on the outer walls show the victories of Seti I in Palestine and Ramses defeating the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh.

Within the Great Temple of Amon are included a number of other notable small shrines and temples. A temple to Ptah, on the north side of the site, was built by Hatshetsut and Tutmose III. Ramesses dedicated a temple in the south to Khons, the moon god, and a temple to Opet.

Karnak

Karnak, a village in Upper Egypt, was built in honor of Amon. Recent excavations have pushed back the site date to around 3200 B.C. The ruins of Karnak cover a considerable area, though nothing remains of the houses, palaces or gardens that must have surrounded the temple in ancient times. The most northerly temple is the Temple of Mont, the god of war. Little remains of this temple but its foundation. The southern temple, which has a horseshoe-shaped lake, was devoted to the goddess Mut, wife of Amon. Between these two temples lay the largest of all Egyptian temples, and one of the largest in the world, the great metropolitan temple of Amon. It is not one complete temple, but rather was built by many different pharaohs, over a great amount of time, making the site a record of Egyptian history.

Many of the main roads which lead to the temples of Karnak used to be lined with sphinxes. The sphinxes which line the entrance to the First Pylon of Karnak combine the body of a lion with the head of a ram. The ram was a symbol of the god Amon for whom the temple was built. Each sphinx protects, between its forelegs, a standing statue of the king-- Ramesses II Standing in the shadow of the First Pylon of the Temple of Amon at Karnak (in Luxor, Egypt), one is struck by the length of its east-west axis and the colossal size of its columns. There are no fewer than 10 pylons, separated by courts and halls. And, like all other temples in Egypt, this one symbolizes the mound of the original creation. The ground rises ever so gradually from the entrance toward the sanctuary. The columns are stone replicas of the vegetation which was growing in the the marshy land around the mound of creation.

In the center of this first court are the ruins of the kiosk of Taharqa (690-664 B.C.) Beyond the kiosk before the Second Pylon are two standing statues of Ramesses II (c.1279-1213 B.C.) After the Second Pylon, the The Great Hypostyle Hall of the Karnak Temple was built by Ramses I, but much of it was decorated by Seti I and Ramses II, both of whom are credited with building it although the actual project began earlier. The north-south axis of the hall provides views which reveal not only the immensity but also the practicality of the architecture. The central row of 12 columns on the east-west axis are 69 feet (21meters) in height, about 33 feet (10 meters) in circumference, and have open papyrus capitals. The 122 columns in the side aisles are 43 feet (13 meters) in height, 27.5 feet (8.4 meters) in circumference, and have closed papyrus-bud capitals. The area of the vast hall is 5,800 yards.

The whole of this hall was roofed with stone slabs, and the interior was quite dark. The difference in height between the central and the side aisle columns was used to provide natural light through clerestory windows which have vertical stone slats. Historical reliefs on the outer walls show the victories of Seti I in Palestine and Ramses defeating the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh.

Within the Great Temple of Amon are included a number of other notable small shrines and temples. A temple to Ptah, on the north side of the site, was built by Hatshetsut and Tutmose III. Ramesses dedicated a temple in the south to Khons, the moon god, and a temple to Opet.

Hierakonpolis

Approximately 3,500 years ago, the Egyptian city of Hierakonpolis flourished between the present cities of Cairo and Aswan. Hierakonpolis, Greek for City of the Hawk, is an archaeological discovery covering over 144 square miles of rich archaeological sites making it a very valuable find.

During Napoleon's expedition to Egypt in 1798, his scholarly associate, Vivant Denon, discovered the edge of an ancient temple. Throughout the next one hundred years, various visitors described other monuments in the area, though little extensive research was completed. It wasn't until the arrival of Quibell and Green in 1897 that proper research would be done on the area. Through their exploration, they discovered a very domesticated Predynastic site. They were not excited about their dull finds however, and nicknamed the area a "Predynastic Cemetery". While researching an area that a temple had been removed from, the two men joyously discovered the earliest large-scale metal statues from antiquity. A large gold and copper statue of the Hawk god, Horus, was found, as well as a life-size statue of King Pepi I, which was opened to unveil a statue of his son encased within. During their further exploration of this town mound, they found heaps of other artifacts such as pottery, figurines, weapons and statues. These finds confirmed the ancient traditions of the ancient site which may have been associated with being a very early unified state.

Along with the City of the Hawk, Green also discovered numerous temples at the southern end of the desert's rich site. After Green left Hierakonpolis, few people bothered with excavating the site which remained intact and untouched under a fog of disregard until 1967. From here, several archaeologists worked on the various sites, uncovering more pottery, figurines and architecture that would help us visualize the past life of the ancient Egyptians.

Another major discovery at Hierakonpolis was the predynastic burial sites. The subjects of the burial sites resembled a form of the beginnings of mummification. Renee Friedman and her team have found bodies whose hands and heads were wrapped with pads and strips of linen. This is significant as it predates the earliest evidence of mummification by over 500 years. However, this early form of mummification seemed restricted on the female members of the society. The specific use of padding and binding did not seem to serve to preserve the remains as later mummies would, but rather to preserve the subject's articulation.

The spoils of Hierakonpolis are vast. The burial mounds, pottery, elaborate masks and other art work, massive gold and bronze statues, weapons, animal remains and architecture have allowed archaeologists to see further into the Egypt's past and to hypothesize the great advances made up until the infamous time of the Pharaoh's. This serves to give us a clue to the evolution of ancient civilization as seen in ancient Egypt.

Helwan

The excavation of the site of Helwan is located southwest of Maasara and north of Ezbit-el-Walda. It is fifteen miles south of Cairo and two miles west of the Nile River. The excavation area lies just outside the Eastern Desert and close to the present town of Al Fayyum. The site dates back to the first and second dynasties. Thus, the site is approximately five thousand years old. The director of these excavations was Zaki Y. Saad. He worked in connection with the Department of Antiquities of the Egyptian government.

The first season of excavations began July 8,1942 and lasted until May 27, 1954. By the end of the last season, a total of 10,258 tombs were excavated. The tombs varied in size and composition. According to Saad, wealthy and revered men had large tombs with numerous chambers and sometimes staircases. Poor men were more often buried in simple graves, but still were accompanied by a variety of objects that would be needed in the afterlife. Many of the tombs for the wealthy were built using mud bricks and/or limestone.

The artifacts found in the tombs were indicative of the industry and technology of the First and Second Dynasty. Flint, one of the most difficult materials to modify, is utilized in several ways ranging from armbands to long knives. Some of these flint knives were up to 50 centimeters in length, an accomplishment of the craftsman from that time period. Ivory was also found in the tombs. It was used for vases, statuettes, utensils and decorative ornaments and jewelry boxes. Another material found was copper, from which they made mirrors, needles, saws, knives and other household objects.

The excavations at Helwan shed light on the lifestyles of ancient Egyptians during the First and Second Dynasties. It showed that the ancient Egyptians had the expertise of constructing tombs of stone before the building of the pyramids. It also showed that they were expert craftsmen of copper, flint, ivory, and several other materials. The excavations at Helwan also improved Egyptologists' understanding of ancient Egyptian technology, dress, customs, religious beliefs, and written tradition.

Giza

LAYMAN AND THE QUEEN OF SABA COMPANIONS OF THE CAVE CONCLUSION

Egypt is known for its fascinating history. Everyone is probably familiar with the great pyramids. After all, they are the only "Wonder of the World" that is reasonably intact today. These monumental pyramids exist in a place known as Giza. Giza is located in Lower Egypt (which is actually northern Egypt) near the Nile River. It is next to the present-day capital city of Cairo.

The history of Giza goes back to over 5,000 years ago. During the time in which the pharaohs lived, they built a fascinating funerary="0" included various temples and the three great pyramids. For many centuries, it was not known that the pyramids were the tombs of early Egyptian pharaohs. An example of one of the many theories were that the pyramids were storage places for grain during droughts and famine! Little did they know that these great pyramids were tombs built for three rulers: Menkaure, Khafre, and Khufu. These three rulers were of the 4th dynasty, (approximately 2601-2515 BCE.)

The Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and largest pyramid at the site. This pyramid was probably built by the cousin of Khufu, named Hemiunu. The Great Pyramid of Khufu covers 13 acres at its base and is approximately 137 meters (450 feet) in height. It was originally cased with polished limestone, creating a smooth exterior. Over the years, the smooth limestone was looted and used in other parts of the world. The pyramid of Khafre is slightly smaller than Khufu. Some of the original limestone casing is still visible at the top of this pyramid. Menkaure�s pyramid is smaller than the other two. The pyramids were built with huge red granite blocks that weighed about 2 � tons. The workers probably transported these blocks with small logs as rollers or by pouring water on the sand to create a slippery surface over which they could drag the blocks on sled-like structures. How they were raised is still a mystery. It involved mathematical calculations that we still cannot figure out! The entire funerary complex also has symbolic astronomical calculations in how the pyramids are oriented. This reflects the importance for the Ancient Egyptians to keep these three kings "immortal." (Click here for Kufu's funerary boat).

The designers of the pyramids tried to make sure that the king and the tomb "home" were never disturbed. During this time, it was believed the soul of the deceased always lingered. For example, offerings of food and beverage by family members were brought to the deceased. In the Great Pyramid of Khufu, the builders (who were slaves) placed his tomb chamber in the heart of the pyramid. A long, narrow, steeply rising passageway led to this tomb chamber. There were three false passageways, which were probably meant to fool looters or any unwelcome visitors. Unfortunately, despite the builders� precautions, looters had managed to break in to the tomb chamber. In it were extravagant funeral treasures, including works in gold, gems, and stone.

The Giza plateau also includes the Great Sphinx. To the Ancient Egyptians, the sphinx was a lion, which was a guardian to the sacred monuments. The lion had the head of a pharaoh who wore the royal headdress. Today his nose is missing.

All the pyramids can be seen from thirty miles from Giza itself. The site is truly spectacular. The walls are covered in fabulously incised hieroglyphics. From the outside, if you are standing right next to the pyramid, you will not be able to see the top. It is a pity to see that the Great Pyramids are in danger because of its neighbor, the ever-growing metropolitan city of Cairo. The pollution is causing the pyramids and the Great Sphinx to slowly deteriorate.

Today, if you visit Giza, you will find tons of other tourists in the area. You can even take a ride on a horse or camel around the Giza desert. The site of Sakkara is right next to Giza. Sometimes the tour guide will show you both sites. Giza today is known for its infamous "Sound and Light Show", which uses narration, and different colored lights similar to a play. The show depicts the history of the characters.

El-Omari

El-Omari was located in Lower Egypt, and is now currently located in the southern suburbs of Cairo (1). Through the search for the three villages of El-Omari many great outcomes were expected. Unfortunately, El-Omari has not been extensively excavated and only limited site reports have appeared (2). Two Frenchmen by the name of Bovier-Lapierre and Fernand Debano uncovered the evidence of the three villages of El-Omari in the 1920's and 40's. The recent Carbon 14 dating has established that the sites were occupied from 4000 BC and continued to be inhabited until the Archaic Period, Omari C being the later of the three (1). All of these sites where nearby and also in the mouth of the Wadi Hof. Their way of living was quite similar to that of the Merimde. Such as, Omari A covered a large area and yielded remains of over 100 circular and oval huts with sunken floors (1). Again like Merimde, Omari's houses were all well preserved with reed fences. This type of housing reflected the Omari living in smaller nuclear family units, which may have been self-contained.

The Omari had a way of farming similar to that of the Old Kingdom as well. The crops were harvested by threshing and the pure crop was later stored in muddy bins until consumption. The El-Omari also had a mortuary culture that was also similar to that of the Merimde in that the residents buried the dead within the village (1). This was done by placing the dead in round pits, before then they were placed in mats, animal skins, and different kinds of fabric. The way that the El-Omari lay their dead was very diverse from everyone else. The dead were laid out in a contracted position on their left sides with the head to the south and facing west, which was of course toward the traditional Dynastic "Realm of the Dead." (1) Many of the dead were buried with a very simple ornament. This was done to show some sort of authority; for example, one was buried with a clay box and another with a staff in his hand. More research and excavating needs to be done on the villages of El-Omari, so we can get a better understanding of the Old Kingdom in Lower Egypt.

El-Omari

El-Omari was located in Lower Egypt, and is now currently located in the southern suburbs of Cairo (1). Through the search for the three villages of El-Omari many great outcomes were expected. Unfortunately, El-Omari has not been extensively excavated and only limited site reports have appeared (2). Two Frenchmen by the name of Bovier-Lapierre and Fernand Debano uncovered the evidence of the three villages of El-Omari in the 1920's and 40's. The recent Carbon 14 dating has established that the sites were occupied from 4000 BC and continued to be inhabited until the Archaic Period, Omari C being the later of the three (1). All of these sites where nearby and also in the mouth of the Wadi Hof. Their way of living was quite similar to that of the Merimde. Such as, Omari A covered a large area and yielded remains of over 100 circular and oval huts with sunken floors (1). Again like Merimde, Omari's houses were all well preserved with reed fences. This type of housing reflected the Omari living in smaller nuclear family units, which may have been self-contained.

The Omari had a way of farming similar to that of the Old Kingdom as well. The crops were harvested by threshing and the pure crop was later stored in muddy bins until consumption. The El-Omari also had a mortuary culture that was also similar to that of the Merimde in that the residents buried the dead within the village (1). This was done by placing the dead in round pits, before then they were placed in mats, animal skins, and different kinds of fabric. The way that the El-Omari lay their dead was very diverse from everyone else. The dead were laid out in a contracted position on their left sides with the head to the south and facing west, which was of course toward the traditional Dynastic "Realm of the Dead." (1) Many of the dead were buried with a very simple ornament. This was done to show some sort of authority; for example, one was buried with a clay box and another with a staff in his hand. More research and excavating needs to be done on the villages of El-Omari, so we can get a better understanding of the Old Kingdom in Lower Egypt.

El-Amarna Site

El-Amarna formerly known as Akhetaten, is a flat piece of land located beside the Nile River Valley. The area is a plain field separated from the Nile Valley by a strip of palm trees, it stretches 12 kilometers from the north to south. The area on which it stretches is mostly outlined with ruins of temples, palaces and houses that stretch the entire distance.

There are more than twenty-five tombs facing the base of the cliff front that is located there. Six tombs are located at the north side near Darb El-Malik, while nineteen of them are located at the south side. These tombs are built highly complicated to ensure that they are protected from thieves. Most of them start with open court that leads to three chambers, within these chambers there are papyrus columns that meet in the rear end which have a statue of the dead looking toward the entrance.

Among these tombs there are various famous tombs that have been discovered, the first is Ay's tomb, which is considered to be the finest of the tombs there. This tomb was found by Giovanni Battista Belzoni, while walking through the Nile Valley here he found some rocks that were out of place so he poked through them with a stick and found a hole that was deep, he and associates removed the rocks and found a tomb that the Arabs dubbed the tomb of the monkey, because of the rows of paintings of apes that were present. King Ay reigned for only four years between 1339 and 1335 BC and his tomb was only half completed. There are some descriptive scenes of the streets of ancient Akhenaten, a few moments in the palace of Ay are depicted; a woman of the harem having her hair done. In the temple the most complete version of the Hymn to the Sun is decorating the right hand side of the doorway.

There are other tombs here also a couple of the more notable one are Huya, who was the steward of Queen Tiyi, the queenmother and wife of Amenhotep III. Meri-re II who was the superintendant of the palace of Queen Nefertiti. Meri-re I a high rank priest of Aton, and Panhesy the chief servitor of the Aton in Akenhaten. Aton was the god that Akhenaten worshipped and some of these people had shrines to them.

Buhen

Buhen is a fortress that was built in Egypt during the 12^th dynasty rule of Sesostris III, around the year 1860 BCE. The fort is located near the head of the Nile River, and lies near the ancient Nubian border. The fort was a part of a chain of forts that lined the Nile. The other forts along the banks were Mirgissa, Shalfak, Uronarti, Askut, Dabenarti, Semna, and Kumma. All the forts had visual contact with one another to warn of would-be attackers.

The fortress itself covered over 150m of the West bank of the Nile. It spanned across 1.3 hectares, and had within its wall a small town laid out in a grid system. At its peak it had a population of around 3500 people. The fortress also included the administration for the whole fortified region of the Second Cataract. Its fortifications included a 3m deep moat, drawbridges, bastions, buttresses, ramparts, battlements, loopholes, and a catapult. The walls of the fort were about 5m thick and stood 10m high. In front of the main walls there was a secondary wall that had the moat in front of it. This meant that attackers would have to cross the moat under archer fire, and then climb both of the walls that surrounded the city.

It is unsure if the fort actually ever saw any battles, but there are burn marks on the front walls. It is not known if these marks are from a battle or an accidental fire in the past. The fort was occupied not just by the Egyptians, but also the Kushites, and the Meroitic peoples without need for major reconstruction. The complex probably served as a customs and naval depot for the Egyptians. It would have been a checkpoint for goods entering from Nubia and southern Africa, and to restrict river traffic from the south. The fortress at Buhen today has been covered by Lake Nasser, which was the result of the building of the Aswan High Dam in 1964. Before the site was covered with water, a team led by Walter B. Emery excavated and published their findings to ensure a record of the site.

Bir Dunqash Roman Period

The Bir Dunqash site is located at N24 56’ 22" / E33 52’ 14" has uncovered a compound estimated at 22 m x 13m. This site has three interior rooms with wheel-ridged redware sherds and red slip sherds surrounding it. These sherds have been dated to be roughly around the Roman or Byzantine date.

This site gives evidence that the trade routes from Coptos to Berenice were actually farther north than they had previously been stated and it gives evidence of Ptolemaic occupation in the important gold mining center. It has also shown that the Roman constructions were rebuilt several times and the latest shows that the constructing of the structures have certain features that are different from their predecessor, the Ptolemaic occupation.

The difference are that they haven’t been laid out using any unit of measurement, relatively heavy walls with corner towers, and show evidence that the cisterns are made of baked brick and large. Another difference is in the way the rooms are laid out. They have one to two rooms along the walls and the units of three or more rooms are placed in the corners.

Bir Sahara and Bir Tarwafi

The Bir (a bir is a well) Sahara and Bir Tarwafi are basins in the western desert of Egypt. This area was occupied by different groups from as long as 33,000 years ago to 5200 B.C. They were formed by deflation and have elongated oval shapes. They are about 10 meters below the level of the surrounding flat plain. The area was occupied only during time periods where there was a climatic change of a significant increase in moisture, causing the basins to fill with water. The Bir Sahara has spring vents surrounding it and a lack of a distinct peripheral drainage net. This suggests that the lake was fed by artesian springs associated with the aquifer in the underlying sandstone.

Both basins have irregular elongated outlines, about 8 km and 15 km in maximum length, and are oriented north-northeast to southwest. There are numerous bays, peninsulas and buttes. The central parts contain modern dunes, extensive patches of limestone and marl. There are shallow wadis surrounding the birs which disappear into the plain after a few hundred meters.

These two basins provide the basic sequence for the early Upper Pleistocene. Several distinct lithostratigraphic units from the framework for the sequence. It is composed of lacustrine and eolian events associated with human occupations as well as rich vertebrate and invertebrate faunas.

The first occupation is on plateau carbonates and the underlying sands. There are numerous Acheulian sites, and the tools found are characterized by less abraded tools, some have faces that are almost completely fresh. Next is a layer of limestone remains with deflated sands surrounding the limestone. Artifacts there consist of Upper Acheulian tools, mostly bifaces, all heavily abraded. Several of the tools found apparently represented artifacts that were worked or thrown in from the adjacent Acheulian campsites.

After this level is the final Acheulian springs, with occasional Acheulian bifaces found there. Some faunal remains found were ostrich eggshell, a tooth belonging to a warthog, and other bones. This period ended when the spring dried up. This was followed by a significant period of eolian erosion.

After this, a Mousterian culture existed during a period of dune formation. Therefore, the Mousterian artifacts are heavily sandblasted. The tools found were denticulates and notches. After the dune there was an intricate series of lacustrine, shore and inblown sediments. There are several Mousterian occupations. These people probably lived near a shoreline, and slight differences in elevations of artifacts may be accounted for by changes in the shoreline. There are several layers, a black layer, a sand layer, a vegetation layer, and silt layers separated by a burnt layer. After the silt layer is a layer of marl. Both the sand layer and the vegetation layer contain an extensive Mousterian settlement. The silt and marl units represent an expanding lake. After this, a dune began forming on the sites, which were then covered by new units of silts. Large amounts of mollusks including land snails were found here.

Aswan

The Nile river as we know it, is the main artery for Nubia and Egypt. The present course of the river is traceable to at least 25,000 years ago and is the determining factor of the topography of the region. Basically a rainless area for the majority of the year, it is encountered by annual flooding which makes this a more viable and habitable place to live. Tributaries of the Nile swell when late summer rains cause floods from the Ethiopia plateau region. This is all pertinent information for the following reason; to gain control of the Nile River and it’s flooding tendencies – construction of the first Aswan Dam began in 1899.

Aswan was marked as the gateway to Egypt from the south, standing as the chief outpost of the pharaohs. Also obviously, this is the place where the arrival of the annual Nile River flood was signaled. More significantly, the area provided granite for many ancient monuments throughout Egypt from it’s quarries.

Aswan has two main archeological surveys, the first being an extensive one taking place from 1907-1911 by gentlemen named Maclver and Woolley from the University of Pennsylvania. Specifically this site, of Karanog, included an extensive village, cemetery, and governor’s palace of the Meroitic people. By studying the artifacts found, this expedition was able to contribute detailed information about the culture these people lived so many years ago.

The second archeological task of more significance is that of the Temple of Isis. This was a temple built in the Ptolemaic period (332-330 BC). At the time it was known as a sanctity of the popular Isis cult and a strong contender to early Christianity. Isis was the goddess of motherhood and sexuality. The temple itself was found on the island of Philae in the river near Aswan. But due to the inundated waters caused by the Aswan Dam, the island of Philae is no more. For this reason, an international team of archeologist, (UNESCO), transported. The Temple of Isis and all other monuments to nearby Aglika island only 500 feet away. Most of the original structures have been reconstructed, and to this day remain a popular tourist attraction for Egypt and the Aswan area. There is even a sound and light show that tours you through the ruins.

Adulis

Adulis is a port city on the Red Sea. Throughout most of ancient times it stood in the forefront of trade between Yemen and the cities of Nubia. Even more impressive in this region was the city of Aksum, home of the Aksumites. Some say that the Aksum Kingdom was thriving in the first century BC. Like most cities that thrived and grew, Adulis and Aksum can contribute their success to the geographic location of the city.

Situated between the Red Sea and the Atbara River in present day Ethiopia, Aksum sat in the middle of great trade routes. Many consider the Aksum Kingdom to be one of Africa's greatest civilizations along with Egypt and Meroe (Munro 1). Adulis, with its churches and palaces built of local basalt, became Aksum's chief port though still ruled by its hereditary rulers, the kings of Gabaz. From Adulis, the treasures of Africa including gold, emeralds, obsidian, ivory, spices and slaves were shipped off to Egypt, Rome, India and Sri Lanka. Imported into this port were a variety of important materials including, metalwork, iron weaponry, wine, olive oil, fabrics and glassware.

Abu Simbel

The site of Abu Simbel has an interesting history. The first part of the name, Abu, means holy man or saint. It began as a temple constructed in Nubia by the Egyptian Pharaoh Ramesses II. The temple was to symbolize his power and his divine nature. At the entrance of the temple are four statues each measuring 65 feet in height. Although the temple was built primarily as a dedication to the gods of Amon-Ra, Ptah, and Ra-Harakhte, these statues are of the great pharaoh Ramesses II. The statue to the left of the entrance became damaged when, in ancient times, an earthquake is thought to have broken off the head and torso. Directly above the entrance is a statue of Ra-Harakhte, one manifestation of the sun god. The temple faces east so that it welcomes the rising sun. On the upper most level of the entrance is a row of baboon statues.

The entrance of the temple leads to a large hall that has gigantic pillars with figures of Osiris in front of them. This hall leads to a chamber that holds statues of Ptah, Amon-Ra, Ra-Harakhte, and Ramesses II. On two days during the year, once in late February and once in late October, the first beams of sunlight hit this chamber and illuminate the statues. In addition to this temple, Ramesses II had another smaller temple built. It was named The Temple of Hathor, in honor of both the goddess Hathor and his wife Nefertari. Like its larger counterpart, the Temple of Hathor has statues surrounding its entrance. It has six statues standing 33 feet high. There are two of Ramesses with one of Nefertari dressed as Hathor flanking them. Smaller statues of their children flank theirs. Unlike all other Nubian temples, Abu Simbel was left alone and not turned into a church by later religions. It stayed the same until J.L. Burckhardt discovered it in 1813.

After being discovered in 1813 by J.L. Burckhardt, the temples were a tourist attraction for Victorians who were visiting Egypt, even while being partly buried beneath the sand. The temples stayed in the same place until the 1960's. During this time the Aswan High Dam was built. Because of the placement of the dam in relation to the temples, the Egyptian Government found both temples would end up being close to 163 feet underwater when the dam was completed. They then received funds from the United Nations to move the temples to a higher location. The effort cost $39 million. The temples were dismantled and reconstructed 195 feet above where they were originally built. Each temple was rebuilt in the exact relationship as they had been. The broken statue was not even changed, so as to keep the original look. Originally, the temples were carved out of the side of a sandstone cliff. Since the reconstruction moved them to the top, an artificial mountain was created around them.

Oxyrhynchus

Oxyrhynchus polis� literally means �City of the Sharp Nosed Fish� (the fish in question was a sacred animal connected to the god Thoeris) and is the Greek name for the Dynastic settlement of Per-medjed. Oxyrhynchus was an important city in Greek and Roman controlled Egypt�the capital of the 19^th Nome and described as the �third city of Egypt.�� Greek and Roman sources describe Oxyrhynchus as an important center for the religion of Christianity, with 12 churches, 10,000 monks, and 20,000 nuns according to one 4^th century account.� Little remains of the city itself, which is thought to have been destroyed during or after the Arabic invasion around 640 CE.� It was later resettled after a period of dormancy and the city of el-Bahnasa still exists on the original site of Oxyrhynchus.� Located on the Bahr Yusuf, a branch of the Nile which leads to Lake Moeris, Oxyrhynchus is 160 km south of Cairo.

The ancient city is important archaeologically and also important to religious scholars due to the wealth of papyri found in its garbage mounds.� The papyri recovered, which number in the tens of thousands, were typically fragmentary and covered a wide variety of subjects over the course of Oxyrhynchus� history as an administrative and religious center:� legal documents, letters, literature, philosophical treatises, and Christian holy writings.� These papyri date from between 250 BCE and 700 CE.� Predominantly Greek and Roman examples are catalogued, though it is known that writings in Arabic were found and disregarded by some early excavators.

Excavation at the site of Oxyrhynchus began in 1896 by Bernard Grenfell and Arthur Hunt of the London-based Egypt Exploration Society.� Working on information that Egyptian peasants were finding papyri at el-Bahnasa and selling them on the black market, Grenfell and Hunt started excavation with 100 workers and 30 overseers in the winter of 1896 at the unpromising-looking refuse mounds near the remains of the ancient city of Oxyrhynchus.� What they found was a scriptological mother lode.� Oxyrhynchus became the life�s work of the two men, and they continued excavation and translation well into the 20^th century.� Scientific interest in the site continued beyond the efforts of Grenfell and Hunt.� Italian excavator Ermengildo Pistelli and his crew continued excavation at the archaeologically fertile Kom Gammon, retrieving papyri from the refuse mound and also discovering the medieval tomb of Sheikh Ali Gammon, for whom the hill was named.� William Flinders Petrie also excavated at el-Bahnasa in 1922, concentrating on the architectural remains of Oxyrhynchus.� Petrie uncovered the remains of the city�s Hippodrome, which is estimated to have seated 11,000 people, and also a long, double colonnade which was thought to be the remains of a colonnaded street or square.� Another Italian, Evaristo Breccia, excavated two private homes during two digging seasons between 1928 and 1932 and recovered still more papyrus documents during that period.� Later excavations continuing into the nineteen eighties and nineties included those by the Egyptian Antiquities Service, a Kuwaiti expedition concentrating on the medieval al-Bahnasa, and a Catalan expedition starting in 1992.

The site of Oxyrhynchus provides a tantalizing glimpse at a world thousands of years removed from us in time.� Many writings by authors from the Greek and Roman periods thought long lost (such as the works of Greek poets Pindar and Callimachus) were found among the great city�s refuse. Other papyri found include ancient fragments of controversial religious texts, such as the Gospel of St. Thomas.� More valuable to the archaeological record than the works of lost poets and Christian gospels, were the papyri that deal with everyday life in the city of Oxyrhynchus.� Accounts of street repairs, letters to and from government officials, legal decisions, wills, shopping lists, and other papyrus and ostraka (clay shard) writings recovered from the site paint a vivid picture of life in a bustling Egyptian city.

Palace of Malqata

Pharaoh Amenhotep III founded the royal city and palace complex at Malqata on the western shore of Thebes. The Theban necropolis is on the West Bank of the Nile in the Luxor area. Malqata includes many kinds of structures in the desert such as various residential palaces, a temple of Amen, a festival hall, elite villas used for the relatives of the King, apartments for attendants, and a desert altar called Kom al-Samak and at least four other palaces.

In addition, the track of a huge artificial canal and a harbor named Birket Habu is observable from continuous piles of sandy soil on the southeastern side of the Palace City. The soil removed from that harbor by the excavation was used to make a series of artificial hills along the southwestern shore. Malqata Palace is located at the south of the mortuary temple built by Ramesses III. Malqata Palace was not like smaller ceremonial palaces connected to the funerary temples of New Kingdom Kings, rather it was a residential place or actual living place even though it might not had been a yearlong residence.

Like Elizabethan rulers, Amenhotep made royal palaces spread throughout the legeance. The large palace of Malqata consists of small chapels, large audience halls, parade grounds, villas for public officials, kitchens, offices workshop and quarters for servants. The area of the Malqata palace is about 50 by 125 meters wide. Having a long and narrow hall extended along the central axis, the structure of the palace was planned roughly symmetrical. The throne room was situated at the south edge of the hall, and Pharaohs private apartments in behind.

The Pharaohs apartment consisted of a number of continuous courts, mostly with raised throne divas at the other side of the entrance. The palace was located at the southwestern corner of a huge enclosure wall, at least 100 by 200 meters. The enclosure also included storage rooms, courts, kitchens, and smaller buildings. To enter the palace, Pharaoh passed through a rampway cutting the western face of the enclosure wall via a number of off-axis hallways and large courts. From these, one could go through an antechamber that led into the long central hall.

Much of the upper part of the palace was ruined. However, a considerable amount of the original decorated elements were still preserved. A large number of fragments of the paintings on the walls and ceilings were found from each room of the Malqata palace. Among those prominent motifs painted on the fragments were spiral patterns and rosettes, even though other motifs have been rarely found. Detailed analyses of the fragments led to the identification of several other ornamental patterns. One of the most incredible motifs was a series of vultures representing the Goddess Nekbet with wings spread out, and the names and titles of Amenhotep III are depicted under the motifs. The series of vultures is surrounded by geometrical patterns on each side. The motif has been found in several rooms (Room B, G, and H), and at the Pharaohs bedchamber of the Main palace.

The ceiling painting of each room has been restored and color drawings have been made using the actual painted fragments found from the rooms as a reference. The wall paintings at Malqata are the most complete of the other remaining palaces. They are significant in determining the spatial alignment of the palace activities. The palace had been adorned with a deliberate series of wall murals, painted pavements, ceilings and inlays. The pavements included symbols of pools with swimming ducks and fish surrounded by a border of papyrus with flying birds. The throne bases had steps adorned with bound prisoners and symbols of the nine bows, the traditional enemies of Egypt, who would be under foot whenever the King ascended or descended from the throne.

The columns of the Palace were made of wood with representations of lotuses carved and painted. Also, there were flying birds painted on the ceilings. The antechamber and Pharaohs bed chamber were the rooms that had most of the ornamentations. For example, the ceiling of the antechamber was adorned with a deliberate panel of spreading spirals, buchrania and rosette. The Pharaohs bedchamber had a ceiling adorned with flying vultures and amulet signs like the antechamber. Pharaohs room was surrounded by figures of the goddess Bes.

Image of Queen Tiye: from Megaera Lorenz at http://www.heptune.com/Tiye.jpg

Amenhotep III built this fabulous palace at Malqata in western Thebes for his Queen Tiye and for other members of the royal family. He retired to this palace with his wife where she supervised the affairs of state with the help of counselors and officials. Amenhotep died when she was forty-eight. Depictions of Tiy illustrate a powerful woman who had a sharp chin, deep-set eyes and a firm mouth. Tutankhamon, Pharaoh of Dynasty XVIII who was believed to be the grandson of King Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye, was born in Malqata.

There was a temple dedicated to the goddess Isis constructed during the Roman Period at the South of Malqata. Local people named the temple and its precinct Deir al-Shalwit . The excavations of Malqata-south were done from December 1971 to January 1979, and laboratory research continued three more seasons at al-Qurna village.

After nine years of excavation, portions of the site were excavated intensively in addition to the test excavations at the grid corners. Remains found by the excavations were categorized into four groups depending on their time periods: Paleolithic, Predynastic, the 18th Dynasty and the Roman-Byzantine period. Paleolithic sites are situated on the desert edge beside the Roman settlement and further into the desert. Some of the Predynastic period remains were discovered under strata in the Roman settlement area. However, there have been no remains of any structures identified up until now. Magnificent relics of the 18th Dynasty were found at a small mound called the "Kom al-Samak". Artifacts from the Roman-Byzantine period were uncovered from all over the area, which should be investigated as an assemblage consisted of a temple, a settlement and related mass graves.

J. Daressy started the partial excavation of this huge site (originally three square kilometers if Kom al-Samak is included) in 1888. After this excavation, R. de Tytus, published a personal preparatory report. Afterward, much of this site was removed between 1910 and 1920 by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. The University of Pennsylvania started re-excavation in 1970s. Elizabeth K. Ralph, who did magnetic survey at Malqata in 1973, revealed the usefulness of magnetometry in Egypt in her publication from University of Pennsylvania Museum. David O'Connor, Egyptian Section Curator, and Cambridge University Egyptologist Barry Kamp also did excavations at Malqata from 1971 to 1977. Since 1985, most of the rooms of the Malqata palace have been re-excavated including Pharaohs bedchamber under the direction of Dr. Yasutada Watanabe, Professor of the Department of Architecture at Waseda University (Japan) .

Pelusium

Pelusium is located east of what is modern day Port Said.In 1910, Jean Cledat, a French Egyptologist, came to Pelusium and made a sketch map of the ancient city. Later in 1982 after Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt, another excavation of Pelusium began.This excavation was led by Mohammed Abd El-Maksound who was the chief inspector for the North Sinai. In 1991, the site was again under notice when it lay in the path of the Peace Canal. Once discovered that the site was in the path of the Peace Canal, it, along with the surrounding sites, were divided up among teams from Egypt, Canada, Switzerland, and Britain. The surrounding sites such as Tell el-Makhazan and Kanais were believed to be parts of a Greater Pelusium. A joint Canadian-Egyptian team was assigned to excavate the western side of the Pelusium site while the Swiss team surveyed around Kanais and a British team surveyed around the southern side of Pelusium.

Pelusium was an ancient city, which was once located between the two easternmost branches of the Nile. The site of Pelusium, which is also known as Tell el-Farama, is four miles long and today is surrounded by the soft, salt-covered mud that once held the branches of the Nile. When the city was in use, historians had described Pelusium as a busy port city. It once contained quays, magazines, and customs offices for the trading activities, some of which occurred with Asia. There was also an industrial section to the city with salt vats, pottery kilns, fish tanks, and textile workshops. In the city, one could also find temples, baths, theaters, and racetracks.

Aside from being a busy port city, Pelusium also served as a military fort. During the 26^th dynasty, it faced Palestine and served as the main fortress against attacks from the east. The written accounts of Herodotus describe Pelusium as being the land granted by Pharaoh Psammetichus I to his Ionian and Carian mercenaries. No seventh-century remains have yet to be found from the site to prove Herodotus was correct. Herdotus also reports that in 525 B.C.E. the Persian army led by Cambyses defeated Pharaoh Psamtik III at Pelusium. So far, though, there have been no archaeological evidence unearthed to support Herdotus accounts. What was unearthed at the site was a twenty-acre fortress. In the fortress there were thirty-six towers, three gates, and seven-foot-thick walls. It has been dated by the Egyptian and German experts to be from the late 6^th century C.E. The destruction by fire can still be seen in traces on the fortress, which may have been caused by the Persian invasion of 619 C.E.

During the Graeco-Roman period, the city of Pelusium served as a major production and export station since it was on the trade route to the Red Sea. The city exported salted fish and garum, or fish sauce. This was also when the city was known for its dyed linens. Pelusium also imported items from the Mediterranean such as wine, honey, and oil. This changed, though, and later, Sinai and Palestine became the main trade partner

Saqqara

Saqqara, known as the “City of the Dead,” is located west of the Nile River near the point where the river splits and flows to the Mediterranean Sea. It is the largest and most important of the Memphite Metropolis covering 9 square kilometers. Giza is located approximately 17 km to the north and Dashur lies about 10 km to the south. Cairo is 40 km to the northeast. Saqqara is divided into two parts. Saqqara North covers the area between the Archaic tombs and the unfinished buildings of Sekhenkhet. It consists of several smaller cemeteries clustered around larger monuments. Saqqara South is located between the pyramid of Pepi I and Shepsekaf.

The oldest known funerary monuments are located on the northern plateau of Saqqara. They are called the Archaic Tombs. They were excavated by W. B. Emery between 1935 and 1956. The structure, known as a mastaba, was built during the reign of Horus-Aha, the first king of the 1st dynasty. There are several other mastabas along the ridge but they are thought to be private tombs as the names on the tombs are non-royal.

Saqqara became known as a royal necropolis in the 2nd Dynasty when Kings moved away from Umm el-Qa’ab. The structures were also very different from earlier structures when tombs were pits dug into the ground with side chambers. Instead, a long corridor descended into the ground into a maze of long narrow galleries. Later these were covered by long narrow buildings.

The 3rd Dynasty is first represented by the complex of Djoser, the second king. The complex of Djoser sits in the center of Saqqara North. The site had already been used by some of the kings of the 2nd Dynasty. The complex itself seems to have been built on a tomb for another king of that Dynasty, Sened. There were also some vessels with Narmer’s name found underneath Djoser’s pyramid. Djoser’s architect, Imhotep, designed a complex that represented a large step in technology and architecture.

It was Imhotep that began to build structures with more solid materials such as limestone compared to the mud and wood that comprised earlier pyramids. Imhotep had many talents outside of architecture and may have been the first true genius. He was later revered as a god of wisdom by later generations. There is another structure to the west of Djoser that is too weak to be explored fully but its resemblance to the other royal tombs of the 2nd Dynasty verifies that it is very likely a 2^nd dynasty tomb. No names have been found but speculation is that it may belong to Reneb, Sened or Khasekhemwi.

Immediately to the south of Djoser are two sets of subterranean galleries considered to have been the tombs of the first and third kings of the 2nd Dynasty, Hotepsekhemwi and Ninetjer. A third gallery belonging to Hotepsekhemwi, lies underneath the Pyramid Unas. Alessandro Barsanti discovered this in 1901. Seal impressions were found inside showing Hotepsekhemwi and his successor, Reneb. In one tomb, where some seals bearing the seal of Ninetjer, archeologists found several thousand mummies. These were determined to be from the Late Dynastic period. This tomb was excavated by Selim Bey Hassan in 1937-1938. Sekhemkhet, the third king, built his complex to the north west of Djoser. Imhotep is mentioned on the north wall of the pyramid confirming that he probably designed this complex as well. There are questions as to what happened to Sekhemkhet’s body as the sarcophagus was sealed and the passage blocked so the likelihood of grave robbers is doubted.

King Shepseskaf, the sixth king of the 4th Dynasty, was the first to return to Saqqara. His predecessors either preferred Dashur, Abu Rawash, or Giza. His tomb is the most royal tomb of Saqqara South.

The first king of the 5th Dynasty, Userkaf, built his complex at the northeastern corner of the Djoser complex. The return to Saqqara and to Djoser’s complex may be symbolic. His pyramid was called ‘Pure are the Places of Userkauf.’ The pyramid complex of Djedkare/Isesi, seventh king of the 5th Dynasty was excavated by Abdessalam Hussein in 1943. Djedkare is known as the first king to return to Saqqara even though Userkauf built his temple prior to Djedkare. Userkaf had started to move towards Abusir for the construction of his solar temple. Djedkare’s complex consists of a main pyramid called “Beautiful is Isesi,” a mortuary temple, a satellite pyramid, and for the first time, a separately functioning Queen's pyramid. There are still areas within this complex that remain to be excavated.

The last king of this dynasty, Unas, built his complex close to the southwestern corner of the enclosure wall surrounding the complex of Djoser. The main pyramid is called, ‘Perfect are the Places of Unas.’ There were human remains found but it is uncertain whether they are those of Unas. The pyramid is the first since that of Djoser to have decorated rooms. The columns in the antechamber and part of the horizontal passage are carved with hieroglyphs painted in blue. These are the earliest known examples of the pyramid texts and considered the oldest collection of religious texts known to man. Pyramid texts are inscribed with a collection of religious texts and spells.

Mounir Basta discovered the tomb of Niankhknum and Khnumhotep in 1964 near the causeway to the pyramid of Unas. These men shared the title of “Overseer of the Manicurists in the Palace of the King, King's Acquaintance and Royal Confidant” in the Palace of King Niuserre, the seventh king of this dynasty. There have been several scenes found depicting these men in close embrace and their relationship has been long debated.

Several 6th Dynasty kings chose Saqqara for their pyramids. Teti, the first king, built his pyramid to the northeast of the pyramid of Userkaf. His pyramid is called the ‘The Places of Teti Endure.’ North of Teti’s complex a private cemetery was established and Vizier’s Kagemni and Mereruka were buried under elaborate mastabas.

Pepi I, the third King, built his complex to the northwest of Djedkare’s complex. The pyramid was named ‘Pepi’s perfection is established’ and has been nearly destroyed. This was the first pyramid to have been inscribed with pyramid texts. There have been at least four queen’s pyramids uncovered within the complex. The most eastern pyramid was built for Nebwenet, a second pyramid bears the name of Inenek/Inti, a third for an unnamed but titled ‘eldest daughter of the king’ and the fourth, for Meritites, ‘Daughter of the king and wife of the king’.

The fourth king, Nemtimsaf I/ Merenre, had his pyramid built to the south west of Pepi I. Indications are that the work on the temple was abruptly finished when the king died after his short reign. The pyramid is also badly ruined. Pepi II, the fifth king, had his complex built at the southern most point of Saqqara. There are three queen’s pyramids within the complex. A pyramid to the south was built for queen Wedjebten, one to the north for Neith and the one to west for Iput II. Queen Ankhesenpepi is buried between the pyramids of Neith and Iput, not under a pyramid indicating she may have been of lower rank than the other queens.

King Ibi, from the 8th Dynasty, built the last royal pyramid at Saqqara. It was located near the causeway of pyramid of Pepi II in Saqqara South. Only piles of mud and limestone chips remain of this ruined pyramid. He is the last king buried in a royal tomb at Saqqara.

A private tomb was built for the last king of the 18th Dynasty, Horemheb. It is located to the south of an old causeway from Unas mortuary complex. By the end of the New Kingdom Saqqara was also used by the middle classes. Mummies found there will provide a good source for scientists. Saqqara was also used for burial of sacred animals. During the Roman period, the number of burials at Saqqara decreased. As Christianity prevailed, the funerary practices of mummification, sacrificed animals, and decorated tombs and temples decreased. By 391 AD on, these practices were forbidden.

Senneferi

The Tomb of Senneferi, also known as Theben Tomb 99, was built by Senneferi as his final resting place. It is situated in an area known as “The Tombs of the Nobles,” located on the west bank in Luxor, Egypt. It is surrounded by a number of other tombs found in this area. Senneferi was an important 18th Dynasty official under the reign of Tuthmose III. From inscriptions found in his tomb, archaeologists were able to find information on his family. His wife was named Taiamu, but that was all they were able to find out about her. There was nothing specific mentioned about Senneferi’s children, but he is believed to have had a son and a daughter. A statue of his daughter's husband, Amenhotep, was found in Senneferi’s tomb. His parents were mentioned a number of times in the tomb. His father’s name was Haydjehuty. He was believed to have been a winery official in the eastern delta before moving to Thebes. His mother's name was Zatdjehuty. She was depicted in the tomb as the “Lady of the House.” From the depictions of his parents in the tomb, they were not of high status in Egyptian society. Senneferi somehow worked his way up to becoming an important person during his time and secured his place in the Tombs of the Nobles.

Construction of Senneferi’s tomb took place around 1420 BC. In the rock he cut out a courtyard. From this courtyard led a tunnel to the back of the tomb, where the chapel was located. In the courtyard he also cut a shaft. Many more shafts would later be cut in this tomb but his was the deepest and this is where he was buried.

Senneferi’s tomb, like others built during the New Kingdom had some similar characteristics. These tombs consisted of three levels. Each level served a different function. The lower level is where the burial chambers were located. It was created by digging a shaft well below the surface. This level was known as the Realm of the Dead and belonged to Osiris. The middle level was the Realm of the Living. This is where the courtyard and offering chambers were located. The upper level was the Realm of the Sun God. This consisted of a pyramid-like superstructure or a niche. In the case of Senneferi’s tomb, a niche was located directly over the entrance and most likely held some type of statue. This niche served as the upper level for this tomb. Larger, pyramid-like superstructures serving as the upper level, are found in later tombs beginning in the 19th Dynasty.

Because the tombs in Thebes were built near ancient and modern centers of population, they were used and reused many times throughout their existence. There is evidence that the tomb of Senneferi was first reused during the 21st Dynasty, about 400 years after its initial construction. During this time a new shaft was cut. In the 22nd Dynasty, a family also used it for burials. Mummy cases from at least two generations of this dynasty were found. Two priests of Amun were also buried here long after the initial construction of the tomb. Numerous other burials followed for the next 700 years. Eventually, the function of this tomb went from burials to actual occupation of the tomb as housing. In 1907, the people living in the tomb, believed to be Coptic weavers, were bought out for 11 Egyptian pounds, and an iron door was place at the entrance.

Even though the tomb had been plundered by treasure hunters, it still provided a wealth of information to archaeologists. This tomb had gone from a sacred burial place to a place of residence and is also believed to have been a dumping ground at one time due to the massive amounts of broken pottery found here. There is still more work to be done on the Tomb of Senneferi and many more discoveries are certain to be made.

The Serapeum

The Serapeum was a tomb located in Memphis, where the sacred Apis Bulls of Egypt were buried. The tomb was originally discovered by the geographer Strabo who lived during the 1st century BC. The tomb was later rediscovered by Mariette, a noted archeologist who played a key role in the later formation of the Service of Egyptian Antiquities.

The Serapeum is only one of two temples by the same name dedicate to the god Sarapis. The Apis Bulls were considered to be the incarnation of the god Ptah, and were ceremonially buried through out the nile. It wasn't until 1400 BC/BCE with the rule of Ramses II, that a gallery was designed as the bulls cemetery, and catacomb. The bulls themselves in death, were said to become a part of the god Osiris, and in turn this created the aspect of Osiris known as Osiris-Apis. Similarly the Greeks living along the nile adapted this aspect of Osiris to the god named, Osorapis. By the middle of the Ptolemic dynasty's the name Sarapis was taken from Osiris-Apis, and hence the name of the tomb became the Serapeum.

Strabo wrote of the Serapeum, "One finds a temple to Serapis in such a sandy place that the wind heaps up the sand dunes beneath which we saw sphinxes, some half buried, some buried up to the head, from which one can suppose that the way to this temple could not be without danger if one were caught in a sudden wind storm." In essence what Strabo was describing was a line of sphinx's on either side of a road in Memphis leading directly to the Serapeum. Mariette who had originally been sent to Memphis to collect coptic scripts, found himself intrigued by Strabo's description of the Serapeum. As he explored Egypt, he abandon his original work in egypt, and set out to find the tomb. In 1850, excavation began, and in 1851 his work yeilded many subterranean chambers, and 64 Apis bulls with thousands of inscribed objects therein. Since the time of Mariette excavations have continued of the Serapeum, as recent as 1980.

Sphinx

The majestic Sphinx, with the body of a lion and the head of a king, presides over the Giza necropolis as if it were it’s guardian. It wears a pharaonic nemes and faces the east. A beard used to hang from it’s chin, but it has long since fallen away. The Greek word "sphinx" may have derived from the Egyptian shesep-ankh, which translates to "living image." It stands taller than a six-story building and as long as a city block. It is made from megaliths, which are estimated to weigh 200 tons apiece, the smallest weighing 50 tons. The megaliths are fashioned from a single knoll of rock.

Many scholars believe that the face of the Sphinx was carved to represent="0" who the Greeks knew as Chephren. Khafre reigned from 2520 to 2494 BC. Some also believe that it dates back to the Old Kingdom during the fourth Dynasty. However, the Sphinx is carved of rock, so it cannot be dated by the radio carbon technique. The only other method of dating is by using contemporary texts that refer to its construction. There are none of these, therefore, no definite facts are known. Another notion is that it was built when the Sahara was still green. We know that the Sahara was once fertile, but over the millennia, it slowly eroded. This could be an explanation for the water damage done to the outer walls of the Sphinx.

The awe-inspiring monument lies on an east-west axis. The east and west walls each have six secluded places, perhaps used in rites of the rising and setting of the sun. They also have twenty-four pillars, which may represent the twenty-four hours in a day. There are many legends about the Sphinx. One such legend claims that it is a sole remnant of an advanced civilization lost to archaeology. A small number of people believe that the evidence for this lost civilization is under the right paw. There is no archaeological data to support this claim. Another legend states there are secret underground passages. The Egyptian Antiquities Organization excavated and found three tunnels under the monument. The first tunnel is found under the head of the Sphinx. It travels inside the body for five meters. The second is found in the tail and is thirty feet long. The third is located on the north side. All of these tunnels date to pharaonic times, but the purpose for them is unknown.

A red granite stela sits between the front paws. It tells a story of King Thutmose IV when he was still a prince. He went hunting near Giza and fell asleep in the shade of the Sphinx. The awesome lion appeared before him in a dream and complained that his body was falling into ruin. The creature promised that Thutmose IV would be king one day if he restored the monument. The rest of the inscription has eroded away, but Thutmose IV did become king. He removed sand from around the Sphinx and reset some of the facing stones that had fallen off. He erected the stela that tells his story. The present damage done to the face of the Sphinx was done in 1380 by Arab sheiks and later by soldiers from Napolean's army who used it for target practice.

Let us take a journey back to Giza to the year 10,500 BC. If we looked at the skies, what would we see? If we sat at the paws of the Sphinx just before sunrise, we would see the zodiacal constellation of Leo- a constellation that resembles a lion. At the exact moment of which the solar disc breaks over the horizon ahead of us, we make a ninety-degree right turn to face due south. Consummating at the altitude of nine degrees twenty minutes, we see before us the three stars of Orion’s belt forming a pattern in the sky that is identical to the ground plan of the Giza Pyramids. Graham Hancock, the author of "The Message of the Sphinx", believes that it is a lion because it was built in the Age of Leo. The Age of Leo lasted from 10,970 to 8810 BC. He supports his argument by stating that in the Age of Pisces the symbol of Christianity is the fish. In the proceeding Age of Aries we find rams sacrificed in the Old Testament. Finally, Egyptians worshiped Apis, the bull, in the Age of Taurus and the bull-cult flourished in Minoan Crete. Of course, this is one of many theories.