Saqqara, known as the “City of the Dead,” is located west of the Nile River near the point where the river splits and flows to the Mediterranean Sea. It is the largest and most important of the Memphite Metropolis covering 9 square kilometers. Giza is located approximately 17 km to the north and Dashur lies about 10 km to the south. Cairo is 40 km to the northeast. Saqqara is divided into two parts. Saqqara North covers the area between the Archaic tombs and the unfinished buildings of Sekhenkhet. It consists of several smaller cemeteries clustered around larger monuments. Saqqara South is located between the pyramid of Pepi I and Shepsekaf.
The oldest known funerary monuments are located on the northern plateau of Saqqara. They are called the Archaic Tombs. They were excavated by W. B. Emery between 1935 and 1956. The structure, known as a mastaba, was built during the reign of Horus-Aha, the first king of the 1st dynasty. There are several other mastabas along the ridge but they are thought to be private tombs as the names on the tombs are non-royal.
Saqqara became known as a royal necropolis in the 2nd Dynasty when Kings moved away from Umm el-Qa’ab. The structures were also very different from earlier structures when tombs were pits dug into the ground with side chambers. Instead, a long corridor descended into the ground into a maze of long narrow galleries. Later these were covered by long narrow buildings.
The 3rd Dynasty is first represented by the complex of Djoser, the second king. The complex of Djoser sits in the center of Saqqara North. The site had already been used by some of the kings of the 2nd Dynasty. The complex itself seems to have been built on a tomb for another king of that Dynasty, Sened. There were also some vessels with Narmer’s name found underneath Djoser’s pyramid. Djoser’s architect, Imhotep, designed a complex that represented a large step in technology and architecture.
It was Imhotep that began to build structures with more solid materials such as limestone compared to the mud and wood that comprised earlier pyramids. Imhotep had many talents outside of architecture and may have been the first true genius. He was later revered as a god of wisdom by later generations. There is another structure to the west of Djoser that is too weak to be explored fully but its resemblance to the other royal tombs of the 2nd Dynasty verifies that it is very likely a 2nd dynasty tomb. No names have been found but speculation is that it may belong to Reneb, Sened or Khasekhemwi.
Immediately to the south of Djoser are two sets of subterranean galleries considered to have been the tombs of the first and third kings of the 2nd Dynasty, Hotepsekhemwi and Ninetjer. A third gallery belonging to Hotepsekhemwi, lies underneath the Pyramid Unas. Alessandro Barsanti discovered this in 1901. Seal impressions were found inside showing Hotepsekhemwi and his successor, Reneb. In one tomb, where some seals bearing the seal of Ninetjer, archeologists found several thousand mummies. These were determined to be from the Late Dynastic period. This tomb was excavated by Selim Bey Hassan in 1937-1938. Sekhemkhet, the third king, built his complex to the north west of Djoser. Imhotep is mentioned on the north wall of the pyramid confirming that he probably designed this complex as well. There are questions as to what happened to Sekhemkhet’s body as the sarcophagus was sealed and the passage blocked so the likelihood of grave robbers is doubted.
King Shepseskaf, the sixth king of the 4th Dynasty, was the first to return to Saqqara. His predecessors either preferred Dashur, Abu Rawash, or Giza. His tomb is the most royal tomb of Saqqara South.
The first king of the 5th Dynasty, Userkaf, built his complex at the northeastern corner of the Djoser complex. The return to Saqqara and to Djoser’s complex may be symbolic. His pyramid was called ‘Pure are the Places of Userkauf.’ The pyramid complex of Djedkare/Isesi, seventh king of the 5th Dynasty was excavated by Abdessalam Hussein in 1943. Djedkare is known as the first king to return to Saqqara even though Userkauf built his temple prior to Djedkare. Userkaf had started to move towards Abusir for the construction of his solar temple. Djedkare’s complex consists of a main pyramid called “Beautiful is Isesi,” a mortuary temple, a satellite pyramid, and for the first time, a separately functioning Queen's pyramid. There are still areas within this complex that remain to be excavated.
The last king of this dynasty, Unas, built his complex close to the southwestern corner of the enclosure wall surrounding the complex of Djoser. The main pyramid is called, ‘Perfect are the Places of Unas.’ There were human remains found but it is uncertain whether they are those of Unas. The pyramid is the first since that of Djoser to have decorated rooms. The columns in the antechamber and part of the horizontal passage are carved with hieroglyphs painted in blue. These are the earliest known examples of the pyramid texts and considered the oldest collection of religious texts known to man. Pyramid texts are inscribed with a collection of religious texts and spells.
Mounir Basta discovered the tomb of Niankhknum and Khnumhotep in 1964 near the causeway to the pyramid of Unas. These men shared the title of “Overseer of the Manicurists in the Palace of the King, King's Acquaintance and Royal Confidant” in the Palace of King Niuserre, the seventh king of this dynasty. There have been several scenes found depicting these men in close embrace and their relationship has been long debated.
Several 6th Dynasty kings chose Saqqara for their pyramids. Teti, the first king, built his pyramid to the northeast of the pyramid of Userkaf. His pyramid is called the ‘The Places of Teti Endure.’ North of Teti’s complex a private cemetery was established and Vizier’s Kagemni and Mereruka were buried under elaborate mastabas.
Pepi I, the third King, built his complex to the northwest of Djedkare’s complex. The pyramid was named ‘Pepi’s perfection is established’ and has been nearly destroyed. This was the first pyramid to have been inscribed with pyramid texts. There have been at least four queen’s pyramids uncovered within the complex. The most eastern pyramid was built for Nebwenet, a second pyramid bears the name of Inenek/Inti, a third for an unnamed but titled ‘eldest daughter of the king’ and the fourth, for Meritites, ‘Daughter of the king and wife of the king’.
The fourth king, Nemtimsaf I/ Merenre, had his pyramid built to the south west of Pepi I. Indications are that the work on the temple was abruptly finished when the king died after his short reign. The pyramid is also badly ruined. Pepi II, the fifth king, had his complex built at the southern most point of Saqqara. There are three queen’s pyramids within the complex. A pyramid to the south was built for queen Wedjebten, one to the north for Neith and the one to west for Iput II. Queen Ankhesenpepi is buried between the pyramids of Neith and Iput, not under a pyramid indicating she may have been of lower rank than the other queens.
King Ibi, from the 8th Dynasty, built the last royal pyramid at Saqqara. It was located near the causeway of pyramid of Pepi II in Saqqara South. Only piles of mud and limestone chips remain of this ruined pyramid. He is the last king buried in a royal tomb at Saqqara.
A private tomb was built for the last king of the 18th Dynasty, Horemheb. It is located to the south of an old causeway from Unas mortuary complex. By the end of the New Kingdom Saqqara was also used by the middle classes. Mummies found there will provide a good source for scientists. Saqqara was also used for burial of sacred animals. During the Roman period, the number of burials at Saqqara decreased. As Christianity prevailed, the funerary practices of mummification, sacrificed animals, and decorated tombs and temples decreased. By 391 AD on, these practices were forbidden.
